Human Development Final Exam Review

What is the term for the positive emotional bond that develops between a child and a particular individual?
Select one:
a. reliance
b. attachment
c. parent
d. care giver

b. attachment

The ____________ demonstrates the limits to a three-year-old child’s theory of mind.
Select one:
a. false belief task
b. social referencing
c. learning theory

a. false belief task

The _________________, located in the brain’s temporal lobes, is central to the experience of emotions and provides a link between the perception of an emotion-producing stimulus and a later memory of that stimulus.
Select one:
a. prefrontal cortex
b. hippocampus
c. amygdala
d. lateral cortex

c. amygdala

Research suggests that adults’ _________________ remains stable over their lives.
Select one:
a. cognitive ability
b. activity level
c. subjective well-being
d. ability to achieve happiness

c. subjective well-being

____________ encompasses patterns of arousal and emotionality that are consistent and enduring characteristics of an individual.
Select one:
a. Genetic predisposition
b. Personality
c. Inherited characteristics
d. Temperament

d. temperament

When discussing the dimensions of temperament, what is the term used to refer to the proportion of active time periods to inactive time periods demonstrated by an infant or a child?
Select one:
a. distractibility
b. activity level
c. rhythmicity
d. intensity of reaction

b. activity level

When discussing the dimensions of temperament, what is the term used to refer to a child’s response to a new person or object, based on whether the child accepts the new situation or withdraws from it?
Select one:
a. rhythmicity
b. approach-withdrawal
c. quality of mood
d. intensity of reaction

b. approach-withdrawal

According to Thomas and Chess, who carried out a large-scale study of infants in the New York Longitudinal Study, what percentage of children were found to be "difficult babies"?
Select one:
a. 10%
b. 5%
c. 30%
d. 20%

a. 10%

According to Erikson, when do we all pass through the trust-versus-mistrust stage?
Select one:
a. first 18 months of life
b. first 5 years of life
c. first 12 months of life
d. first 2 years of life

a. first 18 months of life

According to Erikson, what is the term for the period during which children aged 3 to 6 years experience conflict between independence of action and the sometimes negative results of that action?
Select one:
a. initiative-versus-guilt stage
b. autonomy-versus- shame stage
c. individualistic orientation
d. collectivistic orientation

a. initiative-versus-guilt stage

What is Erikson’s term for the period during which toddlers (aged 18 months to 3 years) develop independence and autonomy if they are allowed the freedom to explore, or shame and self-doubt if they are restricted and overprotected?
Select one:
a. temperamental stage
b. Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development
c. autonomy-versus-shame-and-doubt stage
d. trust-versus-mistrust stage

c. autonomy-versus-shame-and-doubt stage

What is the term that refers to a style of attachment in which children do not seek proximity to the mother, do not seem distressed when she leaves the room, and seem to avoid her when she returns?
Select one:
a. secure attachment pattern
b. Ainsworth Strange Situation
c. avoidant attachment pattern
d. Bowlby safety and security pattern

c. avoidant attachment pattern

Erik Erikson characterized midlife as a period of
Select one:
a. rigidity.
b. generativity-versus-stagnation.
c. ego-integrity-versus-depair.
d. identify crisis.

b. generativity-versus-stagnation

What is the term for the psychological problem that arises when the development of attachment has been severely disrupted, and is characterized by extreme problems in forming attachments to others?
Select one:
a. ambivalent attachment pattern
b. avoidant attachment pattern
c. reactive attachment disorder
d. disorganized-disoriented attachment pattern

c. reactive attachment disorder

What percentage of 1-year-olds fall into the ambivalent classification?
Select one:
a. 5-10%
b. 15-20%
c. 5-15%
d. 10-15%

d. 10-15%

Infant sociability is expressed in all of the following ways EXCEPT
Select one:
a. showing preferences for peers they are familiar with over peers they do not know.
b. showing more interest in peers than in inanimate objects.
c. exhibiting high level of social behaviors towards infants they do not know.
d. smiling, laughing, and vocalizing when looking at peers.

c. exhibiting high level of social behaviors towards infants they do not know

The dysfunction of ______________ may be related to the development of disorders involving theory of the mind as well as autism.
Select one:
a. mirror neurons
b. attachment
c. cerebellum
d. cerebral cortex

a. mirror neurons

Nonverbal expressions of emotion called ___________ are fairly consistent among people of all ages.
Select one:
a. nonverbal encoding
b. discrimination
c. emergence
d. communication

a. nonverbal encoding

What is the term that means the intentional search for information about others’ feelings to help explain the meaning of uncertain circumstances and events?
Select one:
a. social referencing
b. social smile
c. nonverbal encoding
d. nonverbal decoding

a. social referencing

Children with autism find it particularly difficult to relate to others, in part, because they find it difficult to
Select one:
a. understand what others are thinking.
b. listen to others.
c. pay attention.
d. use visualization.

a. understand what others are thinking

What is the term that refers to the knowledge and beliefs about how the mind works and how it affects behavior?
Select one:
a. theory of mind
b. social referencing
c. self-awareness
d. learning theory

a. theory of mind

Psychologist George Vaillant believed that a stage entered between the ages of 20 and 40, when young adults become centered on their careers, is called
Select one:
a. career consolidation.
b. realistic period.
c. fantasy period.
d. tentative period.

a. career consolidation

The theory that seems to explain the complex relationship between self-esteem and minority group status is
Select one:
a. social identity theory.
b. low self-esteem theory.
c. downward social comparison.
d. social comparison theory.

a. social identity theory

When an adolescent provides another adolescent with opportunities to compare and evaluate opinions, abilities, and physical changes, this is called
Select one:
a. social comparison.
b. social reference.
c. peer review.
d. reference groups.

a. social comparison

According to Ginzberg, the period lasting until about age 11, when career choices are made, and discarded, without regard to skills, abilities, or available job opportunities is called
Select one:
a. career consolidation.
b. tentative period.
c. fantasy period.
d. realistic period.

c. fantasy period

According to John Holland’s personality type theory, people who are down-to-earth, practical problem solvers, and physically strong, but have mediocre social skills are best described as
Select one:
a. realistic.
b. enterprising.
c. intellectual.
d. conventional.

a. realistic

Occupations that are associated with relationships are called
Select one:
a. intrinsic.
b. maternal.
c. communal.
d. agentic.

c. communal

Women today make up ____% of the U.S. labor force.
Select one:
a. 75
b. 55
c. 30
d. 50

b. 55

The motivation that causes people to work for their own enjoyment, not for the rewards work may bring is called
Select one:
a. career consolidation.
b. extrinsic motivation.
c. status.
d. intrinsic motivation.

d. intrinsic motivation

When a situation occurs where a highly trained professional experiences dissatisfaction, disillusionment, frustration, and weariness from his/her job, this is called
Select one:
a. normative life crisis.
b. burnout.
c. midlife crisis.
d. live events hypothesis.

b. burnout

According to one analysis, every time the unemployment rate goes up 1%, there is a ____% rise in suicide.
Select one:
a. 5
b. 10
c. 1
d. 4

d. 4

The philosophy of ______________ emphasizes personal identity and the uniqueness of the individual.
Select one:
a. individualistic orientation
b. collectivistic orientation
c. western culture
d. eastern culture

a. individualistic orientation

Older adults may choose to work for all of the following reasons EXCEPT
Select one:
a. employment offers opportunities to socialize.
b. age discrimination is no longer a problem.
c. working can provide intellectual rewards.
d. they need to work for financial reasons.

b. age discrimination is no longer a problem

What is the term for the phenomenon in which minority children indicate preferences for majority values or people?
Select one:
a. ethnic preference
b. race identity
c. cultural identity
d. race dissonance

d. race dissonance

Erikson believed that because of the pressures related to the identity-versus-identity-confusion stage, many adolescents
Select one:
a. pursue a "psychological moratorium" during which they take time off from upcoming responsibilities of adulthood to explore alternative roles and possibilities.
b. regress psychologically to an earlier time in their lives or childhood where life was simpler.
c. never have the opportunity to fully experience adolescence before they mature and move on to young adulthood.
d. become psychologically scarred for life and never fully mature.

a. pursue a "psychological moratorium" during which they take time off from upcoming responsibilities of adulthood to explore alternative roles and possibilities.

According to James Marcia’s definition, commitment is
Select one:
a. a psychological investment in a course of action or an ideology.
b. an adolescent’s feeling that he/she is mature enough for a committed relationship.
c. a period of identity development in which an adolescent consciously chooses between various alternatives and makes decisions.
d. a period of identity development when the adolescent decides whether to concentrate on his/her own development or dedicate himself/herself to others.

a. a psychological investment in a course of action or an ideology.

According to James Marcia, the status of adolescents who commit to a particular identity following a period of crisis during which they consider various alternatives is called
Select one:
a. identity foreclosure.
b. identity diffusion.
c. identity achievement.
d. moratorium.

c. identity achievement

Which of the following U.S. societal models views individual cultural identities as needing to be assimilated into a unified culture?
Select one:
a. bicultural identity model
b. multicultural model
c. cultural assimilation or melting pot model
d. pluralistic society model

c. cultural assimilation or melting pot model

The culturally determined psychological timepiece providing a sense of whether we have reached the major benchmarks of life at the appropriate time in comparison to our peers is called
Select one:
a. social clock.
b. maturation.
c. intimacy-versus-isolation stage.
d. postformal thought.

a. social clock

Psychologist Ravenna Helson found that women finding a spouse and embarking on traditional feminine behavior occurs from ages
Select one:
a. 21-27.
b. 16-21.
c. 25-30.
d. 30-35.

a. 21-27

What is the term that describes helping behavior that benefits others?
Select one:
a. autonomous cooperation
b. immanent justice
c. moral development
d. prosocial behavior

d. prosocial behavior

What is the term for nonphysical aggression that is intended to hurt another person’s psychological well being?
Select one:
a. instrumental aggression
b. emotional aggression
c. relational aggression
d. psychological aggression

c. relational aggression

Some form of domestic violence occurs in _____% of all marriages in the U.S.
Select one:
a. 25
b. 75
c. 35
d. 50

a. 25

The theory that abuse and neglect of children leads them to be predisposed to abusiveness as adults is called
Select one:
a. life events hypothesis.
b. cycle of violence hypothesis.
c. normative crisis generation.
d. midlife crisis.

b. cycle of violence hypothesis

When discussing marital aggression, all of the following are stages that the couple go through EXCEPT
Select one:
a. an acute battering incident.
b. the fight-or-flight stage.
c. the tension-building stage.
d. the loving contrition stage.

b. the fight-or-flight stage.

What percentage of people who were abused or neglected grow up to be abusive and neglectful to their own children?
Select one:
a. one fifth
b. one fourth
c. one third
d. one half

c. one third

The physical or psychological mistreatment or neglect of elderly individuals is called
Select one:
a. elder abuse.
b. elder ignorance.
c. age discrimination.
d. ageism.

a. elder abuse.

According to Piaget, what is the term for the earliest, broad stage of moral thinking in which rules are seen as invariant and unchangeable?
Select one:
a. heteronomous morality
b. resilience
c. preschool morality
d. morality

a. heteronomous morality

Prosocial behavior that is learned indirectly by observing the behavior of others is called
Select one:
a. moral development.
b. social learning.
c. modeling.
d. empathy.

c. modeling

In its most extreme form, _________ parenting results in neglect.
Select one:
a. permissive
b. authoritarian
c. authoritative
d. uninvolved

d. uninvolved

Bandura’s research indicates that when children watch adults modeling aggressive behavior with the Bobo doll, they are likely to
Select one:
a. be as or more aggressive than the model.
b. be frustrated.
c. choose to play with the Tinkertoys.
d. be less aggressive than the model.

a. be as or more aggressive than the model.

According to the social learning theory, modeling paves the way for the development of more general rules and principles in a process called
Select one:
a. immanent justice.
b. empathy.
c. abstract modeling.
d. autonomous cooperation.

c. abstract modeling.

Approximately how many people over the age of 60 experience elder abuse each year?
Select one:
a. 2.5 million
b. 1 million
c. 500,000
d. 2 million

d. 2 million

Kohlberg proposes that moral development occurs in a fixed order, and that people are unable to reach the highest stage of moral reasoning until __________ due to
Select one:
a. adolescence; lack of experience and peer pressure.
b. young adulthood; lack of experience.
c. adolescence; lack of cognitive development.
d. middle childhood; lack of cognitive development.

c. adolescence; lack of cognitive development.

__________ work is done to help others and requires clear self-sacrifice.
Select one:
a. Anti-social
b. Seflish
c. Altruistic
d. Cultural

c. Altruistic

What is the term for parents who provide lax and inconsistent feedback and require little of their children?
Select one:
a. authoritative
b. authoritarian
c. permissive
d. involved

c. permissive

The Chinese concept of chiao shun suggests that parents should
Select one:
a. use spanking to punish children as needed.
b. be strict, firm, and in control of their children’s behavior.
c. encourage independence.
d. encourage children to think of themselves as partners with their parents.

b. be strict, firm, and in control of their children’s behavior.

In a new and growing phenomenon, parents are turning to ____________ to help them navigate the trials of parenthood.
Select one:
a. their own parents
b. religious leaders
c. clergy members
d. parent coaches

d. parent coaches

All of the following are rationales for embracing religion and spirituality in adulthood EXCEPT religion
Select one:
a. helps solve problems that otherwise seem impossible to resolve.
b. can help people make sense of catastrophes and disasters of all sorts.
c. can provide direct social support to others.
d. assists people in making sense of events that otherwise appear to be senseless.

a. helps solve problems that otherwise seem impossible to resolve.

What is the term for the capability to adjust emotions to a desired state and level of intensity?
Select one:
a. autonomous cooperation
b. emotional self-regulation
c. relational aggression
d. instrumental aggression

b. emotional self-regulation

What is the term that relates to one’s sense of being male or female?
Select one:
a. sex
b. gender roles
c. social perceptions
d. gender

d. gender

According to psychologist Robert Sternberg, the components of love include all of the following EXCEPT
Select one:
a. decision/commitment component that embodies both the initial cognition that one loves another, as well as the long-term determination to maintain that love.
b. companionate love in which strong affection is apparent with people whose lives are deeply involved.
c. passion component that comprises the motivational drives relating to sex, physical closeness, and romance.
d. intimacy component that encompasses feelings of closeness, affection, and connectedness.

b. companionate love in which strong affection is apparent with people whose lives are deeply involved.

Surveys indicate that a high proportion of the following college students would consider it acceptable to marry without love.
Select one:
a. Brazilian college students
b. Japanese college students
c. Pakistani college students
d. U.S. college students

c. Pakistani college students

For the past three decades, there has been a significant
Select one:
a. rise in the number of couples getting married.
b. decline in the number of couples living together without getting married.
c. decline in the number of couples getting married.
d. decline in the number of same-sex couples living together.

c. decline in the number of couples getting married.

In which of the following countries is cohabitation the norm?
Select one:
a. Sweden
b. United States
c. India
d. Brazil

a. Sweden

What percentage of people eventually marry?
Select one:
a. 62%
b. 90%
c. 85%
d. 55%

b. 90%

Most research regarding marital satisfaction
Select one:
a. is not conclusive regarding the U-shape and marital satisfaction, but seems to substantiate that men are more satisfied than women.
b. is not conclusive regarding the U-shape and marital satisfaction, but seems to substantiate that women are more satisfied than men.
c. substantiates the "U-shaped" pattern where marital satisfaction is high at the beginning, drops down around the birth of children, and then gradually rises back to its original high level.
d. brings the "U-shape" in question suggesting that the upturn in the U shape may be illusionary, and that marital dissatisfaction continues throughout life.

c. substantiates the "U-shaped" pattern where marital satisfaction is high at the beginning, drops down around the birth of children, and then gradually rises back to its original high level.

Although the overall divorce rate has declined in the past two decades, divorce among _________ couples is rising.
Select one:
a. middle-aged
b. young-adult
c. elderly
d. teen

a. middle-aged

Approximately how many people who divorce will remarry again usually within 2 to 5 years?
Select one:
a. one-quarter
b. three-quarters
c. one-half
d. two-thirds

b. three-quarters

Which of the following people is most likely to experience feelings of loneliness and increased physical and mental health problems?
Select one:
a. divorced women over the age of 40
b. divorced men in general
c. divorced women in general
d. divorced women under the age of 25

b. divorced men in general

According to Robert Sternberg, when two people are living in an arranged marriage or a couple has decided to stay together "for the sake of the children," this is called
Select one:
a. nonlove.
b. liking.
c. empty love.
d. fatuous love.

c. empty love.

Research indicates that when girls are exposed to unusually high levels of ________ prenatally, they are more likely to display stereotypical male behaviors.
Select one:
a. toxins
b. testosterone
c. androgens
d. estrogen

c. androgens

Which of the following terms describes the period in which the sexual organs mature?
Select one:
a. puberty
b. maturation
c. growth spurt
d. latency

a. puberty

_______________ is the belief that people are permanently males or females depending on fixed, unchangeable biological factors.
Select one:
a. Sexual identity
b. Gender schema
c. Gender identity
d. Gender constancy

d. Gender constancy

The prevailing ___________________ decades ago was that premarital sex was considered permissible for males but not for females.
Select one:
a. double standard
b. sexual norm
c. permissiveness
d. orientation

a. double standard

The age at which adolescents have sexual intercourse for the first time is ________, and _____ have had sex before the age of 20.
Select one:
a. increasing; 40%
b. declining; 80%
c. increasing; 25%
d. declining; 50%

b. declining; 80%

According to current norms, if sexual intercourse occurs within the context of a long-term, committed, or loving relationship, it is called
Select one:
a. double standard.
b. engagement.
c. permissiveness with affection.
d. marriage.

c. permissiveness with affection.

Which group of teenagers in the U.S. has shown the steepest decline in the number of teenage births in the past decade?
Select one:
a. Asian American
b. Native American
c. African American
d. Caucasian American

? (not Caucasian)

The two major factors that determine whether or not an elderly person will engage in sexual activity are
Select one:
a. personality traits and physical appearance
b. moral views and previous athletic ability
c. good physical and mental health and previous regular sexual activity
d. sexual permissiveness earlier in life and socioeconomic standing

c. good physical and mental health and previous regular sexual activity

The component of love that encompasses feelings of closeness, affection, and connectedness is called
Select one:
a. passionate (or romantic) love
b. passion component.
c. intimacy component.
d. companionate love.

c. intimacy component.

What type of play involves action in which children play with similar toys, in a similar manner, but do not interact with each other?
Select one:
a. parallel
b. functional
c. onlooker
d. associative

a. parallel

Which of the following age groups of women giving birth have increased over earlier decades?
Select one:
a. 24-28
b. 38-40
c. 30-34
d. 35-38

c. 30-34

What is the approximate percentage of children in the U.S. who spend their entire childhood living in the same household with both parents?
Select one:
a. 25%
b. 33%
c. 40%
d. 50%

d. 50%

Immediately after a divorce, both children and parents may show several types of psychological maladjustment for a period that may last from

Select one:
a. 6 months to 2 years.
b. 3 months to 3 years.
c. 1 to 3 years.
d. 1 to 2 years.

a. 6 months to 2 years.

What are the major effects of poverty in children?
Select one:
a. Strong sense of family, mental health problems, greater likelihood of delinquency
b. High absenteeism, greater academic success, cardiovascular disease
c. Obesity, high rates of aggression, low stress
d. High rates of aggression, poorer academic performance, and conduct problems

d. High rates of aggression, poorer academic performance, and conduct problems

When young adults return after leaving home for some period to live in the homes of their middle-aged parents, this is called being
Select one:
a. in a midlife crisis.
b. the sandwich generation.
c. boomerang children.
d. the empty nest syndrome.

c. boomerang children.

Which of the following can assist in conflict resolution when elderly people live with their children?
Select one:
a. having family meetings
b. allowing everyone to be totally independent
c. establishing separate living areas.
d. establishing ground rules regarding roles

d. establishing ground rules regarding roles

What is a major drawback of some continuing-care facilities?
Select one:
a. not being homogeneous
b. location
c. type of care
d. requiring a substantial initial payment

d. requiring a substantial initial payment

What percent of people age 65 to 74 live in nursing homes?
Select one:
a. 2%
b. 4%
c. 5%
d. 1%

d. 1%

Learned helplessness is a belief that
Select one:
a. being helpless leads to despair.
b. being helpless leads to wellness.
c. one must help him/herself to receive help.
d. one has no control over one’s environment.

d. one has no control over one’s environment.

The number of children that one generation must produce to be able to replenish its numbers is called
Select one:
a. generation replacement.
b. replacement level.
c. fertility rate.
d. birth rate.

b. replacement level.

According to psychologist William Damon, a child’s view of friendship passes through all of the stages below EXCEPT

Select one:
a. basing friendship on intelligence.
b. basing friendship on trust.
c. basing friendship on psychological closeness.
d. basing friendship on others’ behavior.

a. basing friendship on intelligence.

When living in a blended family, roles and expectations can be unclear, and this is called
Select one:
a. self-care.
b. shared benefits.
c. role ambiguity.
d. automony.

c. role ambiguity.

Middle-school-age girls tend to __________; while middle-school-age boys tend to
Select one:
a. focus on one or two "best friends"; smooth over disagreements.
b. have a smaller network of friends; ignore differences in status.
c. play in pairs; develop a dominance hierarchy.
d. avoid differences in status; have a smaller network of friends.

c. play in pairs; develop a dominance hierarchy.

Groups of people with whom one compares oneself are called
Select one:
a. associates.
b. social reference.
c. cohorts.
d. reference groups.

d. reference groups.

Larger groups that are composed of individuals who share particular characteristics but who may not interact with one another are called

Select one:
a. crowds.
b. cliques.
c. peers.
d. cohorts.

a. crowds.

If an adolescent student is liked by some and disliked by others, that adolescent is considered
Select one:
a. popular.
b. rejected.
c. neglected.
d. controversial.

d. controversial

All of the following reasons are explanations as to why people become friends EXCEPT
Select one:
a. proximity – people form friendships with those nearby and accessible.
b. personal qualities such as loyalty, affection, supportiveness, frankness, and a good sense of humor.
c. social standing and financial security.
d. similarity between people who hold the same attitudes and values.

c. social standing and financial security.

The assistance and comfort supplied by another person or a network of caring, interested people is called
Select one:
a. family.
b. assisted living.
c. social support.
d. extended family.

c. social support.

What is the most likely reason for the dramatic decrease in the number of children in the average American family?
Select one:
a. the increase in religious-based sex-abstinence programs
b. the availability and use of effective contraceptives
c. the decrease in the number of people getting married
d. an increase in same-sex couplings

b. the availability and use of effective contraceptives

New York Longitudinal Study Findings

9 dimensions of temperament 4 temperament types: easy, difficult, slow-to-warm-up, average "goodness of fit model"

New York Longitudinal Study Criticisms

Parental interviews yield: social desirability bias negative bias

Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory (birth-1)

Trust v. Mistrust

Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory (1-3)

Autonomy v. Shame and Doubt

Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory (3-5)

Initiative v. Guilt

Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory (6-adolescence)

Industry v. Inferiority

Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory (adolescence)

Identity v. Confusion

Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory (young adulthood)

Intimacy v. Isolation

Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory (middle adulthood)

Generativity v. Stagnation

Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory (old age)

Ego Integrity v. Despair

Emotional Milestone ~4-6 months

anger surprise sadness fear

Emotional Milestone ~6-10 months

stranger anxiety

Emotional Milestone ~7-15 months

separation anxiety

Emotional Milestone ~18-24 months

self-conscious emotions: embarrassment pride shame guilt

Emotional Understanding in Infancy

Emotional contagion: respond to emotion by showing same emotion Social Referencing: caregiver sets expectation Still-face task: babies expect an emotional response from caregiver; distressed when no reaction

Emotional Understanding in Early Childhood

2-3 years old: emotion language 4 years old: use situational information

Emotional Understanding in Middle-late Childhood

multiple sources of information increase complexity (i.e. two emotions simultaneously or a false emotion)

Strange Situation Experiment

1. Experimenter introduces caregiver and infant to unfamiliar room (1 min) 2. Caregiver and infant alone in room (3 min) 3. Stranger enters, sits quietly, talks to caregiver, and tries to interact with infant (3 min) 4. Caregiver leaves infant alone with stranger (3 min) 5. Parent returns, stranger leaves (3 min) 6. Parent leaves infant alone in the room (3 min) 7. Stranger returns, interacts with and comforts infant (3 min) 8. Parent returns, stranger leaves (3 min)

Secure Attachment (65-70% of children)

explore freely in caregiver’s presence often visibly upset when caregiver leaves greet caregiver warmly at reunion

Insecure-Avoidant (20%)

Little/no distress upon separation avoid contact upon reunion more positive behavior with stranger don’t know how to express emotions to parents

Insecure-Ambivalent (10-15%)

thoroughly distressed by separations don’t settle easily upon reunions mix proximity-seeking and angry behaviors

Disorganized-Disoriented (4-5%)

confused, contradictory behaviors dazed, fearful expressions frozen postures lack a coherent strategy often from families of abuse/bad experience

Cultural Variations in Attachment

o Germans More insecure-avoidant than Japanese and Americans o Japanese More insecure-resistant (ambivalent) than Germans and Americans o Americans Mostly secure, but the insecure style is split pretty evenly between avoidant and ambivalent

Baby-Mirror Study

Red mark on nose to see how child reacts in the mirror. Results: <15 months don’t touch red mark 15-17 months some touch red mark 18-24 most touch red mark (all touch red mark by 24 months)

Consequences of self-recognition

self-conscious emotions self-labels ("I, you") possessiveness categorical self

Changes in Self Concept

3-5: concrete, physical, observable characteristics 8-11: more psychological and ability-based adolescence: quality; many domains

Puppet self-concept task

choose between two competing statements: "I like myself" vs. "I sometimes don’t like myself" Results: even 3.5 year-olds have some understanding of psychological characteristics

Identity Achievement (Marcia)

explore + decide

Identity Moratorium (Marcia)

explore + don’t decide

Identity Foreclosure (Marcia)

decide without exploring

Identity Diffusion (Marcia)

don’t explore and don’t decide

Consequences of High Self-Esteem

emotional well-being life satisfaction academic success

Consequences of Low Self-Esteem

unstable emotion unsatisfied unsuccessful

Factors that influence self-esteem

Parenting patterns (sensitivity; acceptance of child) Cultural values (self-esteem is talked about a lot in America)

Ginzberg’s Career Choice Theory

• Fantasy period-dream of potential future jobs; unrealistic (childhood-11) • Tentative period-consider possibilities based on job requirements and individual abilities (adolescence) • Realistic period-commit to a career (20s)

Holland’s Personality Type Theory

Primary Personalities that help determine career: realistic, investigative/intellectual, artistic, social, enterprising, conventional

Gender Differences in Career Choice

Women = communal professions Men = agentic professions

Components of Morality

Cognition: what you believe Affect: how you feel Behavior: what you do

Piaget’s Moral Development Theory

Pre-moral (before 4 years) • Don’t have good reason for thinking one action is worse than another Heteronomous morality (4-7 years) • Believe that punishment is for its own sake and not for the sake of learning Incipient cooperation (7-10 years) • Transitional stage: understand rules better Autonomous cooperation stage (>10 years) • Understand that rules are set by people and can be changed (In general, Piaget’s theory underestimates children’s reasoning of moral issues)

Kohlberg’s Moral Reasoning Theory Level 1

Preconventional Morality • Externally controlled—gaining rewards, avoiding punishment • Stage 1: Punishment & Obedience Orientation o Avoid punishment o Focus on consequences of behavior • Stage 2: Instrumental Purpose Orientation o Satisfying own needs o Exchange theory—is it worth the risk?

Kohlberg’s Moral Reasoning Theory Level 2

Conventional Morality • Be a good person by maintaining social order • Stage 3: "Good Boy or Girl" Orientation o Win approval of others by being a good person • Stage 4: Social Order Maintaining Orientation o Societal laws are important o Our personal duty to uphold laws

Kohlberg’s Moral Reasoning Theory Level 3

Postconventional Morality • Abstract principles & values that apply to all situations/societies • Stage 5: Social Contract Orientation o Laws are flexible o Follow when consistent with human rights • Stage 6: Universal Ethical Principle Orientation o Self-chosen ethical principles o Abstract values (e.g., preservation of human life)

Gilligan’s Gender Differences in Morality

Morality of justice (male) • Assume competition, different interests • Value rules for resolving competing interests Morality of care (female) • Assume one’s welfare is interconnected with that of others • Assume responsibility for others

Types of Aggression

Instrumental: behave to get something from others (no harm intended) Hostile: with intent to harm -Overt: physical (boys) -Relational: damaging relationships (girls)

Bandura’s Social Learning Theory

Aggression is observed: watching aggression leads to aggression… Bobo Doll experiment

Social Information Processing Model of Aggression (Dodge)

Encoding Interpretation Goal formulation response access/generation response evaluation/selection behavioral enactment

Puzzle Study

Work on puzzle; told peer is doing the same; leave room; hear recording of 3 conditions: hostile, benign, and ambiguous of the peer breaking the puzzle. Results: -hostile: aggressive and non-agressive boys retaliate -benign: neither retaliate -ambiguous: aggressive retaliate

Functions of Dating in younger adolescents

egocentric motives, immediate gratifications

Functions of Dating in older adolescents

intimacy, reciprocal aspects of relationships (safe base)

Gender Differences in reasons for dating

Females: interpersonal (closeness, intimacy, social support, attachment) Males: sexual/physical reasons

Sternberg’s Triangular Theory

Intimacy, Commitment, Passion

Intimacy + commitment + passion = ?

Consummate love

Types of Play

• Pretend play • Functional play—simple repetitive activities (i.e. throwing a ball around repeatedly) • Constructive play • Solitary: alone, mostly ignore others • Parallel: side by side, but little interaction • On-looker: watch others play • Associative: actively interact, but don’t work together (their own puzzles or Lego buildings, etc.) • Cooperative: join forces to achieve goal

Research on Peer Status: Nominations

• Positive nominations 3 classmates children like most • Negative nominations 3 classmates children like least • Popular: many positive & few negative nominations • Rejected: few positive & many negative nominations • Controversial: many positive & many negative • Neglected: few positive or negative nominations • Average: average # of both positive & negative

Damon’s Stages of Friendship

• Stage 1 (ages 4-7 years) • Basing friendship on other’s behavior Whether the person is nice to them, etc. • Stage 2 (ages 8-10 years) • Basing friendship on trust More psychological and personal states • Stage 3 (ages 11-15 years) • Basing friendship on psychological closeness

Dyadic Relationships in family

Mother-child relationship is emphasized; father-child and mother-father also exist

Triadic Relationship

Father-Mother-Child-Father

Bronfenbrenner’s bio-ecological model: microsystem

activities, relationships in child’s immediate environment: family, school, neighborhood

Bronfenbrenner’s bio-ecological model: mesosystem

relationships among microsystems (e.g. relationship between home and school)

Bronfenbrenner’s bio-ecological model: exosystem

children do not inhabit this, but it affects the microsystem parents’ workplace, health and welfare services, etc.

Bronfenbrenner’s bio-ecological model: macrosystem

overarching values, beliefs, customs, practices

Two dimensions of parenting:

control and warmth

High warmth; high control

Authoritative

Low warmth; high control

Authoritarian

High warmth; low control

Permissive

Low warmth; low control

Uninvolved (neglectful)

Why divorce has negative consequences:

transition: physical and psychological depleted resources: physical and psychological conflict: because of divorce or preceding divorce

Functional death

an absence of heartbeat and breathing

Brain death

no signs of brain activity

Legal death

in the US, we mostly rely on the absence of brain functioning, although some laws still include a definition related to respiration and heartbeat

Causes of death in Infants

miscarriage, still birth, sudden infant death

Causes of death in Childhood

accidents, homicides

Causes of death in Adolescence and Young Adulthood

accident, homicide, suicide, cancer, AIDS

Causes of death in Middle Adulthood

heart attack or stroke

Causes of death in Late Adulthood

cancer, stroke, and heart disease

Reactions to death in Childhood

finality and irreversibility of death customs involved with death

Reactions to death in Adolescence

unrealistic view of death personal fable: egocentric; take risky behaviors that cause accidents and sometimes death denial and depression

Reactions to death in Young Adulthood

death seems unthinkable: don’t expect illness, etc. creates feelings of anger or impatience

Reactions to death in Middle Adulthood

life-threatening disease is not surprising fear of death is often greatest at this point (concerned about health)

Reactions to death in Late Adulthood

realize death is imminent less anxiety high suicide rate (especially for white males 85+)