CH 15 – Reconstruction

The era of reconstruction can best be described today as

E) an important step towards civil rights

President Lincoln’s plan for reconstruction was opposed by some radical Republicans because they

B) Felt it was too lenient on Southerners

The 1864 congressional plan for reconstruction differed from Lincoln’s plan in that

Majority of white males would have to pledge allegiance to the union, voters would have to swear that they never born arms again, governments would have to repudiate confederate war debts, confederate civil and military leaders would be disenfranchised

William T Sherman’s field order 15:

B) set aside the sea islands and 40 acre tracks of land in South Carolina and Georgia for black families

Which of the following best describes the black response to the ending of the Civil War and coming of freedom

C) blacks adopted different ways of testing their freedom including moving about seeking Ken and rejecting older forms of deferential behavior

How did emancipation affect the structure of the black family

C) Black women adopted the domestic rules for that white women had long had but one poverty compel them to they sought work in the fields and in the workplace

During the reconstruction the role of the church in black communities

Was central as African-Americans formed their own churches

The northern vision of the reconstruction era southern economy included all of the following except

D) The labor system would be close as slavery as possible there by assuming high productivity

During reconstruction most former slaves found employment mainly as

B) sharecroppers

White farmers in the late 19 century south

B) included many sharecroppers involved in the crop lien system

Radical Republicans

D) fully embrace the expanded powers of the federal government born during the Civil War

Radical Republicans in Congress believed that reconstructing the south should include all the following measures except

C) The permanent occupation of the south by the union army

During 1865 and 1866 Northern opinion grew hostile toward the south because of all of the following developments except

Assassination of a number of Southern Republican governors

The most ambitious but least successful of the radical Republicans aims during construction was

Land reform

The first civil rights act passed by Congress in 1866

A) all of the answers below: declared blacks to be citizens of the United States,empowered the federal government to intervene in the state affairs to protect your rights, was vetoed by President Johnson, strict didn’t former Confederate officials ability to hold office

14th amendment

D) marked the most important change in the US Constitution since the Bill of rights

The congressional reconstruction act of 1867

D) allowed former confederates to hold public office

What early 1860 action by Andrew Johnson’s sparked his impeachment

He, at least allegedly, Violeted the tenure of office act

Who impeached Andrew Johnson

B)the house

Why was Andrew Johnson acquitted on charges of impeachment

A)moderate Republicans worried about setting a dangerous constitutional precedent

All of the following are true passage of the 15th amendment except

E) it aided the election of Ulysses grant to the presidency in 1868

15th amendment

A) sought to guarantee that one could not be denied suffrage rights based on race.

The U.S. Supreme Court decision in the 1837 case in which Myra brad well challenged an Illinois statue excluding women from practicing law

D) demonstrates that while racial definitions of freedom for changing gendered ones exist

Black officeholders during reconstruction:

C) helped ensure a degree of fairness and treatment of African American citizens

Most of those termed " scalawags" during reconstruction had been:

B) non-slaveholding white farmers from the southern up country prior to the civil war

Southern republicans during reconstruction:

B) established the south’s first state supported schools

Which of the following was not an accomplishment of southern governments run by Republicans during reconstruction

B) widespread transformational plantations into black owned farms

The enforcements acts, passed by congress in 1870 1871 were designed to:

B) stop the activities of terrorist groups such as the Ku Klux Klan

Ku Klux Klan formed during reconstruction with the purpose of

B) keeping African-Americans from exercising their rights

Grants administration developed substantial opposition because

D) corruption developed in his aministration

The US Supreme Court ruled in the slaughterhouse case

A) most rights of the citizens are under the control of state governments rather than the federal government

In general the federal government’s response to the violation of African-American civil rights of the later years of reconstruction and afterwards was one of the

B) deference to states rights

Of the following groups, the least likely to become redeemers were

Blacks

Terms of the compromise of 1877 included all the following provisions except

Giving Republicans control federal patronage is in the south

Southern politics after reconstruction was dominated by

C) democrats

All of the following are true of passage of the Fifteenth Amendment EXCEPT:

it aided the election of Ulysses Grant to the presidency in 1868. Correct

Andrew Johnson:

lacked Lincoln’s political skills and keen sense of public opinion. Correct

Black officeholders during Reconstruction:

helped ensure a degree of fairness in the treatment of African-American citizens.

During Reconstruction, southern state governments helped to finance:

Rainroads

During Reconstruction, the role of the church in the black community:

was central, as African-Americans formed their own churches.

During Reconstruction, those like Elizabeth Cady Stanton who supported a woman’s right to vote:

found themselves divided over whether or not to support the Fifteenth Amendment. Correct

General William T. Sherman’s Special Field Order 15:

set aside the Sea Islands and 40-acre tracts of land in South Carolina and Georgia for black families.

Hiram Revels and Blanche Bruce were the first two black:

U.S. senators.

How did emancipation affect the structure of the black family?

The black family became more like the typical white family, with men as the breadwinners and women as the homemakers.

How did the Civil War affect planter families?

For the first time, some of them had to do physical labor. Correct

Howard University is well known as:

a black university in Washington, D.C.

In March 1867, Congress began Radical Reconstruction by adopting the __________, which created new state governments and provided for black male suffrage in the South.

Reconstruction Act

In the "Petition of Committee in Behalf of the Freedmen to Andrew Johnson" (1865), what are the freedmen requesting?

the right to purchase a homestead

Most of those termed "scalawags" during Reconstruction had been:

non-slaveholding white farmers from the southern upcountry prior to the Civil War.

Sharecropping:

was preferred by African-Americans to gang labor (because they were less subject to supervision).

Southern Republicans during Reconstruction:

established the South’s first state-supported schools.

The Bargain of 1877:

allowed for white Democratic control of the South.

The Civil Rights Act of 1866:

defined the rights of American citizens without regard to race.

The crop-lien system:

kept many sharecroppers in a state of constant debt and poverty.

The election of 1876:

was tainted by claims of fraud in Florida, South Carolina, and Louisiana.

The Enforcement Acts, passed by Congress in 1870 and 1871, were designed to:

stop the activities of terrorist groups such as the Ku Klux Klan.

The Fifteenth Amendment:

sought to guarantee that one could not be denied suffrage rights based on race.

The Fourteenth Amendment:

marked the most important change in the U.S. Constitution since the Bill of Rights.

The Freedmen’s Bureau:

made notable achievements in improving African-American education and health care.

The northern vision of the Reconstruction-era southern economy included all of the following EXCEPT:

the labor system would be as close to slavery as possible, thereby assuring high productivity.

The southern Black Codes:

allowed the arrest on vagrancy charges of former slaves who failed to sign yearly labor contracts.

The U.S. Supreme Court ruled in the Slaughterhouse Cases that:

most rights of citizens are under the control of state governments rather than the federal government.

The U.S. Supreme Court’s decision in the 1873 case in which Myra Bradwell challenged an Illinois statute excluding women from practicing law:

demonstrates that, while racial definitions of freedom were changing, gendered ones still existed.

The Whiskey Ring scandal took place during the administration of:

Ulysses Grant.

What early 1868 action by Andrew Johnson sparked his impeachment by the U.S. House of Representatives?

He, at least allegedly, violated the Tenure of Office Act.

When Congress sent Andrew Johnson the Civil Rights Bill of 1866, he:

argued that it discriminated against whites.

Which of the following best describes the black response to the ending of the Civil War and the coming of freedom?

Blacks adopted different ways of testing their freedom, including moving about, seeking kin, and rejecting older forms of deferential behavior.

Which of the following is NOT true about Andrew Johnson?

Through hard work, he rose into the planter class and then became a successful politician.

Which of the following is NOT true of Thaddeus Stevens?

He represented Massachusetts in the U.S. Senate.

Which of the following was NOT an accomplishment of southern governments run by Republicans during Reconstruction?

widespread transformation of plantations into black-owned farms

White farmers in the late nineteenth-century South:

included many sharecroppers involved in the crop-lien system.

Who claimed in the 1870s to have converted the white South from corruption, misgovernment, and northern and black control?

Redeemers

As part of the Bargain of 1877, President Grant appointed a southerner to his Cabinet.

False

Because of land redistribution, the vast majority of rural freedmen and freedwomen prospered during Reconstruction.

False

Black ministers during Reconstruction played a major role in politics, holding some 250 public offices.

True

Black suffrage made little difference in the South as very few blacks voted or ran for public office during Reconstruction.

False

By the mid-1870s, white farmers were cultivating as much as 80 percent of the region’s cotton crop.

False

The 1873 depression strengthened the North’s resolve to ensure the success of Reconstruction as the depression really hurt the South’s farmers, highlighting the need for reform in the region.

False

While Republicans were in power in the South, they established the region’s first state-supported public schools.

True

With the passage of the Fourteenth Amendment, all people born in the United States were automatically citizens.

True

What was General William T. Sherman’s Special Field Order 15?

Set aside the Sea Islands and a large area along the South Carolina and Georgia coasts for settlement of black families on 40 acres plots of land

How would you describe the black response to the ending of the Civil War and the coming of freedom?

Liberating – blacks worshiped freely, traveled around, sought out family members, and expanded their political freedoms

How did emancipation affect the structure of the black family?

It increased the power of black men, brought the notion that black men and women were part of different "spheres," and that women were able to work more in the home for their families, rather than out in the fields

During Reconstruction, what was the role of the church in the black community?

A place of worship, housed schools, social events, and also played a major role in politics

Which denominations had the largest followings among blacks after the Civil War?

Methodists and Baptists

Howard University is well known as what?

The nation’s first black college, which was located at the nation’s capital

How did the Civil War affect planter families?

Planters lost their savings, which were invested into Confederate bonds, lost their slaves, and some actually had to put in their own physical labor to survive

What was the Northern vision of the Reconstruction-era southern economy?

Free labor – emancipated blacks would be able to enjoy the same opportunities for advancement as the northern laborers and the South would become a "free society"

What did the Freedman’s Bureau accomplish?

Coordinated and helped finance black education and expanded the establishment of hospitals to provide medical care

What is Sharecropping? Why was this preferred to gang labor?

Sharecropping allowed black families to rent a part of a plantation, with the crop divided between the family and the owner; was preferred to gang labor because they were not constantly supervised by the land owner

What was the crop-lien system? What effect did it have on sharecroppers?

The crop-lien system was where yeoman farmers had to take up growing cotton and pledge it as part of their collateral, in order to obtain necessary supplies from merchants; sharecroppers ended up renting out their already rented land to the yeoman farmers

In the "Petition of Committee on Behalf of the Freedmen to Andrew Johnson", what are the freedmen requesting?

The right to own a homestead

What was the effect of Reconstruction on southern cities?

New social classes were developed, the cities grew remarkably, and railroads connected the cities together

What do we know about Andrew Johnson?

He considered himself an "honest yeoman" against the large planters and was the only senator from the seceding states to stay loyal to the Union

What were the southern Black Codes?

Denied blacks their rights to testify against whites, serve on juries or militias, or vote, and when freedmen working on plantations refused to sign yearly labor contracts, they were to be arrested or hired out to whites

What were Radical Republicans’ views of the powers of the federal government?

They embraced the powers of the federal government and insisted that the old traditions of rights must not obstruct the national effort to protect the rights of all Americans

The most ambitious, but least successful, of the Republicans’ aims was?

To confiscate the plantation owners’ lands to redistribute to former slaves and northern immigrants

What do we know about Thaddeus Stevens?

Was one of the most prominent Radicals in Congress, was a lawyer and iron manufacturer, represented Pennsylvania in the House of Representatives, and was a big supporter of black’s rights and the redistribution of southern lands

What was the Civil Rights Act of 1866?

Defined all persons born in the US as citizens and spelled out rights that they were able to enjoy, without regard to race. The main concept of this bill was equality before the law

What was Andrew Johnson’s argument against the Civil Rights Bill of 1866?

That the power of the national government would grow, depriving the states of their autonomy, and that blacks did not deserve the right to become citizens, because that would be "discriminating against the white population"

What was the 14th Amendment? Why was it so important?

It granted citizenship to all persons born in the US, which empowered the government to protect the rights of all Americans. It was important because it prohibited states from abridging the privileges or immunities of citizens or denying them equal protection of the law

In March 1867, Congress passed what act? Why was this so important?

The Reconstruction Act, which temporarily divided the South into 5 military districts and called for the construction of new state governments, where black men could vote

What is the Tenure in Office Act?

Barred the president from removing certain officeholders, including cabinet members, without the consent of the state

What early 1868 action by Andrew Johnson sparked his impeachment by the U.S. House of Representatives?

In February 1868, Johnson removed Secretary of War Edwin M. Stanton, an ally of Radicals

Why was Andrew Johnson acquitted on charges of impeachment?

Because Benjamin F. Wade would have replaced Johnson if he was removed, which would lead to the constitutional separation of powers between Congress and the executive branch would be damaged

"Waving the bloody shirt" referred to?

Republican opponents, why were identified by secession and treason

The 1868 Democratic presidential ticket, Horatio Seymour and Francis Blair Jr., had a campaign motto of?

Charging the Republicans with placing the South under a rule of "a semi-barbarous race" who longed to "subject white women to their unbridled lust"

What were the effects of passage of the 15th Amendment?

African-Americans were given the right to vote, thus completing abolishing slavery and it’s ideas

The 15th Amendment did what?

Prohibited federal and state governments from denying any citizen the right to vote because of race

Why were views of women like Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Lucy Stone towards the 15th Amendment?

Being women’s rights advocates, they didn’t know whether or not to support the 15th Amendment, because it did not do anything to help women gain suffrage

What did the U.S. Supreme Court’s decision in the 1873 case in which Myra Bradwell challenged an Illinois statute excluding women from practicing law demonstrate?

That women were not equal to men; the Supreme Court declared that free labor principles did not apply to women since "the law of the Creator" had assigned them to the "domestic sphere"

With the beginning of Radical Reconstruction, what direct actions did southern African-Americans in the late 1860’s and early 1870’s take to remedy long-standing grievances?

They took part in sit-ins that integrated horse-drawn public streetcars in cities across the South, plantation owners organized strikes for higher wages, speakers spread across the South, thousands joined the Union league, and blacks registered to vote

Black officeholders during Reconstruction accomplished what?

They changed southern life, ensuring that black accused of crimes would be judged fairly and had fairness in aspects of local government

Hiram Revels and Blanche Bruce were the first two black?

Senators; first two blacks to serve in the U.S. Senate

Most of those termed "scalawags" during reconstruction had been?

White Republicans that were born in the South, who were considered traitors

What were the accomplishments of southern governments run by Republicans during Reconstruction?

They established the South’s first state-supported public schools, pioneered civil rights legislation (made it illegal to discriminate based on race), and strengthened the position of rural laborers to promote the South’s economic recovery

During Reconstruction, southern state governments helped to finance what important infrastructure?

Railroads

What was the "Whiskey Ring" scandal?

Series of thefts that added up to tens of millions of dollars, which involved the high officials of the Grant administration, and by New York’s Tweed Ring, controlled by the Democrats

What happened in Colfax, Louisiana in 1873? What was the response?

The bloodiest act of violence during Reconstruction occurred; armed whites assaulted the town with a small cannon, which killed hundreds of former slaves, including 50 members of a black militia unit that had surrendered. Led to the Enforcement Acts being drafted

The Enforcement Acts, passed by Congress in 1870 and 1871, were designed to?

Outlaw terrorist societies and allow the president to use the army against them. Was meant to expand national authority during Reconstruction

The "Prostrate State" depicts?

A state engulfed by political corruption, drained by governmental extravagance, and under the control of a "mass of black barbarism"

The U.S. Supreme Court ruled in the Slaughterhouse Cases that?

When butchers excluded from a state-sponsored monopoly in Louisiana went to court, arguing that their right of equality to the law had been violated, the justice rejected their claim, ruling that the amendment had not altered traditional federalism

In 1875, when Mississippi governor Albert Ames asked President Grant for help because white rifle clubs had openly assaulted and murdered Republicans, Grant’s response was?

That the northern public was "tired out" by southern problems

Who claimed in the 1870’s to have converted the white South from corruption, misgovernment, and northern and black control?

The Redeemers

Describe the election of 1876.

Republicans nominated Governor Rutherford Hayes, while the Democrats chose Samuel Tilden. Only SC, FL, and LA were under Republican control, so whichever candidate could win over these states would win the election. Congress ended up having to make a 15-member Electoral, which was 8-7 Republican, so Hayes was elected

What was the Bargain of 1877?

That Hayes would have to recognize Democratic control of the South, place a southerner in the cabinet position of postmaster general, and work for federal aid to the Texas and Pacific railroad, while Democrats agreed to not dispute Hayes’s right to office and respect the civil and political rights of blacks (railroad promise never fulfilled)

Which of the following best describes the black response to the ending of the Civil War and the coming of freedom?

Blacks adopted different ways of testing their freedom, including moving about, seeking kin, and rejecting older forms of deferential behavior.

During reconstruction, the role of the church in the black community:

was central, as African-Americans formed their own churches.

The northern vision of the Reconstruction-era southern economy included all of the following except:

the labor system would be as close to slavery as possible, thereby assuring high productivity.

sharecropping:

was preferred by African-Americans to gang labor (because they were less subject to supervision).

During reconstruction, southern cities:

enjoyed a new-found prosperity as merchants traded more frequently with the north.

The Civil Rights Bill of 1866:

defined the rights of American citizens without regard to race

The fourteenth Amendment:

marked the most important change in the U.S. Constitution since the Bill of Rights.

Black officeholders during the Reconstruction

helped ensure a degree a fairness in the treatment of African-American citizens.

During Reconstruction, southern states government helped finance.

railroads

Who claimed in the 1870s the have converted the white south form corruption, misgovernment, and northern and black control?

Redeemers

Which of the following best describes the African-American response to the ending of the Civil War and the coming of freedom?

African-Americans adopted different ways of testing their freedom, including moving about, seeking kin, and rejecting older forms of deferential behavior.

During Reconstruction the role of the church in African-American communities:

Was central as African-Americans formed their own churches

Anything less then____would betray the civil wars meaning, African-American spokesman insisted

Full citizenship

The northern version of the reconstruction era southern economy included all the following except:

The labor system would be as close to slavery as possible, thereby assuring high productivity

Andrew Jackson:

Lacked Lincolns political skills and keen sense of public opinion

The most ambitious, but least successful of the radical Republicans aims was:

Land reforms

The 14th amendment:

Marked the most important change in the US Constitution since the Bill of Rights

US Supreme Court’s decision in 1873 case in which Myra Bradwell challenged an Illinois statute excluding women from practicing law:

Demonstrated that, while racial definition of freedom were changing, gendered one still existed

With the beginning of radical reconstruction, southern African Americans in the late 1860s and early 1870s took direct action to remedy long-standing grievances. These actions included:

Sit-ins that helped integrate horse-drawn streetcars in southern cities.

In 1875, when Mississippi Governor Adelbert Ames asked president grant for help because Euro American rifle clubs had openly assaulted and murdered Republicans, grant:

Told Ames that the northern public was "tired out" with Southern problems.

During reconstruction the role of the church in the black community:

Was central, as african americans formed their own churches.

In March 1867, congress began radical reconstruction by adopting the _______ which created new state governments and provided for black male suffrage in the south.

Reconstruction act.

During reconstruction, southern cities:

Enjoyed newfound prosperity as merchants traded more frequently with the north.

The civil rights bill of 1866:

Defined the rights of American citizens without regard to race.

Black office holders during reconstruction:

Helped ensure a degree of fairness in treatment of African American citizens.

In 1875 when Mississippi governor Adelbert Ames asked president grant for help because white rifle clubs had openly assaulted and murdered republicans, Grant:

Told Ames the northern public was tired out with southern problems.

The liberal republic movement in 1872:

Initially had little to do with reconstruction but encouraged opposition to grants policies in the south.

The U.S. Supreme Court ruled in the slaughterhouse cases that:

Most rights of citizens are under the control of state governments rather than the federal government.

The southern black codes:

Allowed the arrest on vagrancy charges of former slaves who failed to sign yearly labor contracts.

The northern vision of the reconstruction era southern economy included all of the following except:

The labor system would be as close to slavery as possible, thereby assuring high productivity.

The whiskey ring scandal took place during the administration of:

Ulysses Grant.

The U.S. Supreme Court decision in the 1873 case in which Myra Bradwell challenged Illinois statute excluding women from practicing law:

Demonstrates that, while racial definition of freedom were changing, gendered ones still existed.

The most ambitious but least successful of the radical republicans aims was:

Land reform.

During reconstruction those like Elizabeth cash Stanton and Lucy stone who supported a woman’s right to vote:

Found themselves divided over wether or not to support the 15th amendment.

The crop lien system:

Kept many share choppers in a state of constant debt and poverty.

The 14th amendment:

Marked the most important change in the U.S. Constitution since the bill of rights.

What early 1868 action by Andrew Jackson sparked his impeachment by the U.S. House of Representatives?

He allegedly violated the Tenure of Office Act.

Which of the following was not an accomplishment of southern governments run by republicans during reconstruction.

Widespread transformation of plantations into black owned farms.

How did emancipation affect the structure of the black family?

The black family became more likely the typical white family, with men as bread winners and women as the home makers.

General William T. Sherman’s special field order 15:

Set aside the sea islands and 40 acre tracts of land in South Carolina and Georgia for black families.

The enforcement acts, passed by congress in 1870 and 1871, were designed to:

Stop the activities of terrorist groups such as the KKK.

Which denominations had the largest followings among blacks after the civil war?

Methodist and baptist.

When congress sent Andrew Jackson the civil rights bill of 1866, he:

Argued that it discriminates against whites.

Which of the following best describes the black response to the ending of the civil war and the coming of freedom?

Blacks adopted different ways of testing their freedom, including moving about, seeking kin, and rejecting older forms of deferential behavior.

Why was Andrew Johnson acquitted on charges of impeachment?

Johnsons lawyers assured moderate republicans that he would behave for the rest of his term, so several voted to acquit him.

Black officeholders during Reconstruction:

helped ensure a degree of fairness in treatment of African-American citizens.

The U.S. Supreme Court ruled in the Slaughterhouse Cases that:

most rights of citizens are under the control of state governments rather than the federal government.

Why was Andrew Johnson acquitted on charges of impeachment?

Johnson’s lawyers assured moderate Republicans that he would behave for the rest of his term, so several voted to acquit him.

What early 1868 action by Andrew Johnson sparked his impeachment by the U.S. House of Representatives?

He allegedly violated the Tenure of Office Act.

When Congress sent Andrew Johnson the Civil Rights Bill of 1866, he:

argued that it discriminated against whites.

During Reconstruction, southern cities:

enjoyed newfound prosperity as merchants traded more frequently with the North.

The northern vision of the Reconstruction-era southern economy included all of the following EXCEPT:

the labor system would be as close to slavery as possible, thereby assuring high productivity.

The southern Black Codes:

allowed the arrest on vagrancy charges of former slaves who failed to sign yearly labor contracts.

Which denominations had the largest followings among blacks after the Civil War?

Methodist and Baptist

Which of the following was NOT an accomplishment of southern governments run by Republicans during Reconstruction?

widespread transformation of plantations into black-owned farms

The Civil Rights Bill of 1866:

defined the rights of American citizens without regard to race.

The Whiskey Ring scandal took place during the administration of:

Ulysses Grant.

In March 1867, Congress began Radical Reconstruction by adopting the __________, which created new state governments and provided for black male suffrage in the South.

Reconstruction Act

During Reconstruction, those like Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Lucy Stone who supported a woman’s right to vote:

found themselves divided over whether or not to support the Fifteenth Amendment.

Which of the following best describes the black response to the ending of the Civil War and the coming of freedom?

Blacks adopted different ways of testing their freedom, including moving about, seeking kin, and rejecting older forms of deferential behavior.

The Enforcement Acts, passed by Congress in 1870 and 1871, were designed to:

stop the activities of terrorist groups such as the Ku Klux Klan.

The Fourteenth Amendment:

marked the most important change in the U.S. Constitution since the Bill of Rights.

During Reconstruction, the role of the church in the black community:

was central, as African-Americans formed their own churches.

The crop-lien system:

kept many sharecroppers in a state of constant debt and poverty.

In 1875, when Mississippi governor Adelbert Ames asked President Grant for help because white rifle clubs had openly assaulted and murdered Republicans, Grant:

told Ames that the northern public was "tired out" with southern problems.

The Liberal Republican movement in 1872:

initially had little to do with Reconstruction but encouraged opposition to Grant’s policies in the South.

General William T. Sherman’s Special Field Order 15:

set aside the Sea Islands and forty-acre tracts of land in South Carolina and Georgia for black families.

The U.S. Supreme Court’s decision in the 1873 case in which Myra Bradwell challenged an Illinois statute excluding women from practicing law:

demonstrates that, while racial definitions of freedom were changing, gendered ones still existed.

How did emancipation affect the structure of the black family?

The black family became more like the typical white family, with men as the breadwinners and women as the homemakers.

The most ambitious, but least successful, of the Radical Republicans’ aims was:

land reform.