ENV SCI CH 5 & 6- Biomes and Biodiversity, and Environmental Conservation

The location of specific biomes can be predicted based on
a) the Coriolis Effect.
b) the Second Law of Thermodynamics.
c) precipitation and temperature.
d) seasonal variations in sunspots.
e) large landforms in the area.

c) precipitation and temperature.

Historically, the greatest threat to grasslands has been
a) damage by off-road vehicles.
b) air pollution.
c) conversion to farmland.
d) global climate change.
e) mineral extraction.

c) conversion to farmland.

In contrast with the ______________, the soil of the ______________ is more nutrient-rich and this type of biome has fewer insects, parasites, and fungal diseases. Therefore, in many places, these areas are highly endangered.
a) temperate grasslands; tropical seasonal forest
b) tropical rainforest; tropical seasonal forest
c) tundra; boreal forests
d) tropical seasonal forest; tropical rainforest
e) boreal forests; tundra

b) tropical rainforest; tropical seasonal forest

One biome type that has not been as badly threatened as other biomes is
a) arctic tundra.
b) tropical rainforests.
c) grasslands.
d) temperate forests.
e) southern pine forests.

a) arctic tundra.

We are usually referring to species diversity when we talk about biodiversity. However, genetic diversity is also important to ecological systems because diverse genes
a) increase the efficiency and productivity of a system because all niches are filled.
b) allow an individual organism to adapt to its changing environment.
c) are necessary for a population to evolve in a changing environment.
d) lead to diverse ecological processes in a biological community.
e) are important for a balanced ecosystem.

c) are necessary for a population to evolve in a changing environment.

Ecological diversity is a measure of the number of
a) different kinds of organisms within a community or ecosystem.
b) different versions of the same gene in an ecological community.
c) sizes, colors, and shapes of organisms within an ecological community.
d) niches, trophic levels, and ecological processes of a biological community.
e) different species in an ecosystem.

d) niches, trophic levels, and ecological processes of a biological community.

The total number of living species is probably
a) about 450,000.
b) between 500,000 and 1 million.
c) between 3 million and 50 million.
d) between 75 and 95 million.
e) at least 300 million.

c) between 3 million and 50 million.

Approximately how many species have been identified on Earth?
a) about 500,000
b) a little less than 1 million
c) about 1.7 million
d) a little more than 10 million
e) about 30 million

c) about 1.7 million

Most of the species that are yet undiscovered are probably
a) mammals and reptiles.
b) birds and fish.
c) fungi.
d) invertebrates.
e) multicellular plants.

d) invertebrates.

Species diversity is most concentrated in
a) North America and Europe.
b) South America, Africa, and Southeast Asia.
c) South Africa, Australia, and Europe.
d) Oceania, East Asia, and Antarctica.
e) North America, South America, and Africa

b) South America, Africa, and Southeast Asia.

Habitat fragmentation usually leads to
a) decrease in biodiversity.
b) reduction in the number of introduced species.
c) increase in biodiversity due to the isolated populations.
d) increase in the number of introduced species.
e) more stable environment.

a) decrease in biodiversity.

Which of the following is true?
a) Humans may have been causing extinctions thousands of years ago, but our impact has recently increased.
b) Humans are responsible for many of the mass extinctions in the geologic record.
c) Humans only began causing extinctions in the past 150 years. (X)
d) Humans have never had significant impact on species extinctions until the past four decades. (X)
e) Humans have been causing extinctions for thousands of years and we are still causing extinctions at about the same rate.

a) Humans may have been causing extinctions thousands of years ago, but our impact has recently increased. (?)

The main reason for the current high rate of animal extinctions is
a) uncontrolled sport hunting in the developed world.
b) commercial harvesting of wildlife in Africa.
c) drought conditions caused by the greenhouse effect.
d) habitat destruction worldwide.
e) None of these by themselves cause high rates of animal extinctions, but together they combine to cause high rates.

d) habitat destruction worldwide.

Which of the following statements about trade in endangered species is false?
a) The principal importers of endangered species are developed countries.
b) Overharvesting affects animals more than plants.
c) People who say they are animal lovers are the main contributors to the trade.
d) The principal exporters of endangered species are developing countries.
e) None of these statements are false.

b) Overharvesting affects animals more than plants.

The main reason that there are relatively few invertebrates categorized as endangered species is because
a) we consider other groups, such as mammals, to be more interesting and desirable.
b) worldwide there are relatively few invertebrates when compared to plants.
c) it is extremely difficult to identify and count invertebrates.
d) Since there are 532 invertebrates considered endangered, none of these are true.
e) invertebrates are more numerous and the relative percentages are similar.

a) we consider other groups, such as mammals, to be more interesting and desirable.

In general, funding for recovery programs is given to species that are
a) in the most danger.
b) the most important.
c) most well known.
d) most numerous.
e) keystone species.

c) most well known.

The objective of a species recovery plan is to
a) interbreed threatened species with common species.
b) increase an endangered species population until it is no longer endangered.
c) invest corporate capital in species maintenance.
d) study the species for a better understanding of its role in the biological community.
e) protect the species to aid other organisms and resources in the ecosystem.

b) increase an endangered species population until it is no longer endangered.

Humid tropical forests have extraordinary biological diversity
a) because of the very fertile tropical soils.
b) because rainfall dissolves soil nutrients and makes them available to plants.
c) because water is not a limiting factor.
d) despite a complete absence of nutrients in the environment.
e) despite the poor, weathered soils.

e) despite the poor, weathered soils.

What is unique about the Mediterranean climate area biome?
a) It is a highly desirable place to live.
b) It is only found in the Mediterranean area.
c) It has very poor soil but supports an extremely diverse array of species.
d) It has a large total area.
e) It contains a high number of unique species.

e) It contains a high number of unique species.

What biome is characterized by moderate temperatures and abundant precipitation?
a) chaparral
b) tropical rainforest
c) temperate rainforest
d) taiga
e) No biome has moderate temperatures and abundant precipitation.

c) temperate rainforest

The primary difference between a bog and a fen is
a) fens are fed by groundwater, bogs are fed by rainfall.
b) fens have many trees, bogs have none.
c) fens are always on the coast, bogs are inland.
d) All of these are differences between fens and bogs.
e) There are no differences between fens and bogs, they are synonymous.

a) fens are fed by groundwater, bogs are fed by rainfall.

Which of the following is not a benefit of high biodiversity?
a) aesthetic and cultural value
b) potential medicinal value
c) potential sources of food
d) ecological value
e) All of these are benefits of biodiversity.

e) All of these are benefits of biodiversity.

The giant panda is considered to be a _________________ species.
a) keystone
b) umbrella
c) flagship
d) indicator
e) principal

c) flagship

Tropical moist forests have high species diversity because they have highly developed, diverse niche opportunities and habitats.
a) True
b) False

a) True

Kudzu vine is a Japanese plant that was introduced without negative consequences into the United States to control erosion.
a) True
b) False

b) False

Estuaries contain a mix of fresh and salt water.
a) True
b) False

a) True

In terms of species diversity and complexity, a coral reef would be similar to which terrestrial biome?
a) Savannah
b) Arctic tundra
c) Tropical rainforest
d) Chaparral

c) Tropical rainforest

The biome that is most at risk due to over-harvest of organisms might be the
a) marine biome.
b) tropical rainforest biome. (X)
c) tundra biome.
d) desert biome.

a) marine biome.

Since tropical forests typically have only a few commercially valuable trees per acre, logging operations
a) usually do little damage to the trees that are left.
b) do extensive damage because of road building and injury to surrounding trees.
c) generally do not encourage conversion of the forest to farmland.
d) are usually not successful.
e) Tropical forests typically have many more than a few commercially valuable trees per acre.

b) do extensive damage because of road building and injury to surrounding trees.

The most sustainable land use in tropical forests is probably
a) logging. (X)
b) cattle grazing.
c) monoculture agroforestry. (X)
d) intensive, efficient modern row cropping.
e) milpa farming.

d) intensive, efficient modern row cropping. (?)

Although most of the world’s forests are shrinking, biologists are especially concerned about tropical forest loss because
a) they contain such high biodiversity.
b) tropical trees are the biggest trees in the world.
c) they contain irreplaceable wood resources.
d) there are fewer remaining tropical forests than any other forest type.
e) All of these are reasons that biologists are especially concerned about tropical forest loss.

a) they contain such high biodiversity.

Old-growth forests are notable for containing species that
a) are exotic in North America.
b) have an unusually high market value.
c) are highly adapted to their special environment.
d) are found in other North American forests, in very different environmental conditions.
e) migrate long distances to feed in the old-growth forests.

c) are highly adapted to their special environment.

Knowing that there are many endangered species found in the old growth forests of the United States, what might you expect remains today of all the old growth forests that stood in the United States before European settlement?
a) about 90 percent
b) about 35 percent
c) about 50 percent
d) about 25 percent (X)
e) less than 10 percent

e) less than 10 percent (?)

Most commercial loggers prefer "clear-cut" harvesting because it
a) is the most environmentally sustainable type of harvest.
b) is the most efficient way to get valuable small timber without disturbing the larger early successional trees.
c) is the most efficient, cheapest harvest method using large, fast machinery instead of costly labor.
d) is the most effective way to refresh soil with sun and rain.
e) does not waste any trees.

c) is the most efficient, cheapest harvest method using large, fast machinery instead of costly labor.

Economically, monoculture forestry is advantageous for the loggers because
a) it produces large quantities of a single type of tree for a particular use, such as building timber or paper pulp.
b) it is labor-intensive and thus increases job opportunities for local people.
c) high levels of pesticides and herbicides may be needed, therefore there is more money spent and in the system.
d) the increase in wildlife diversity is beneficial to the tourism industry.
e) a mix of the different trees leads to a good resource base if the market for one type of timber falls.

a) it produces large quantities of a single type of tree for a particular use, such as building timber or paper pulp.

Annually, the Forest Service __________ on timber sales mainly because of the emphasis on ________________.
a) makes a profit; building roads into wilderness areas (X)
b) loses money; building roads into wilderness areas
c) loses money; exporting logs to Canada
d) makes a profit; exporting logs to Canada
e) loses money; replanting (X)

c) loses money; exporting logs to Canada (?)

The primary aim of the U.S. Forest Service has historically been to provide ______________ based on Pinchot’s philosophy of _________________.
a) the benefits of forests for current and future populations; ecocentric preservation
b) fire patrols to protect ancient forests; biocentric preservation (X)
c) wildlife habitat; biocentric preservation (X)
d) public recreation and education; pragmatic conservation
e) timber to logging companies; pragmatic conservation

a) the benefits of forests for current and future populations; ecocentric preservation (?)

Seasonal migration allows grazing livestock to
a) use the most fertile pastures continuously.
b) use marginal lands year after year with modest environmental damage.
c) produce more young animals with less range.
d) depend more on domestic pastures.
e) use only the most nutritious plants in a pasture.

b) use marginal lands year after year with modest environmental damage.

The first symptom of range overgrazing is usually
a) gullying.
b) the absence of trees.
c) the compaction of soils.
d) desertification.
e) the disappearance of palatable herbs.

e) the disappearance of palatable herbs.

World deserts are
a) decreasing as world climate becomes wetter.
b) increasing because of the increase in global carbon dioxide.
c) increasing because of logging and grazing.
d) decreasing because of massive reforestation.
e) about the same in area but have many threatened species of plants.

c) increasing because of logging and grazing.

Most public rangelands are in poor condition due to
a) excessive populations of wild ungulates.
b) overcrowding of private livestock.
c) too many publicly owned animals on public lands.
d) excessive urban settlement in the West.
e) the lack of water.

b) overcrowding of private livestock.

National parks are an important part of our heritage,
a) and they remain pristine and undisturbed because of their park status.
b) but they lack any protection from mining, logging, and grazing.
c) but they are endangered by overcrowding, pollution, and in some places, mining.
d) but unfortunately exist only in remote inaccessible areas.
e) but they are endangered by overcrowding.

c) but they are endangered by overcrowding, pollution, and in some places, mining.

Over the past decade, the number of park visitors has _______ and park budgets have ________.
a) increased by more than one half; increased by about 25%
b) increased by one third; decreased by about 25%
c) decreased by more than one half; decreased by about 25%
d) decreased by one third; increased by about 25%
e) stayed about the same; decreased by about 25%

b) increased by one third; decreased by about 25%

Monetary inputs to local economies due to the presence of parks and reserves is
a) ecotourism.
b) the Man and the Biosphere concept.
c) hotspot management.
d) a form of REDD.
e) causing the destruction of the parks and preserves through overuse.

a) ecotourism.

The highest rate of forest loss occurs in
a) Asia.
b) North America.
c) South America.
d) Africa.
e) Europe.

d) Africa.

Which forest harvest method would leave the forest as close to a natural old growth forest as possible?
a) Clearcutting.
b) Selective harvest.
c) Strip cutting.
d) Shelterwood harvest.
e) Monoculture harvest.

b) Selective harvest.

The increase in which of the species below would indicate to you that the pasture you see is overgrazed?
a) Bluestem.
b) Fescue.
c) Sage.
d) Bluegrass.
e) Sideoats.

c) Sage.

A major limiting factor to success of parks and reserves in developing nations would be
a) a lack of biodiversity in those countries.
b) a lack of area suitable to set aside as a park or reserve.
c) the lack of scientific data to manage the parks and reserves.
d) the lack of money and infrastructure to manage the parks and preserves.
e) a lack of interest in the development of parks and preserves.

d) the lack of money and infrastructure to manage the parks and preserves.

What technique might you use to determine size and location of a preserve to protect grizzly bears?
a) GIS.
b) REDD.
c) Adaptive management.
d) PVA.
e) MAB.

a) GIS.

Which of the following statements regarding wildlife refuges is true?
a) While they may face other obstacles, wildlife refuges rarely have notable pollution problems.
b) Hunting is not allowed in wildlife refuges.
c) The Bureau of Land Management has made it a priority to expand designated wilderness areas on their lands.
d) Wildlife refuges are managed by the United States Fish and Wildlife Service.
e) All of these are true.

d) Wildlife refuges are managed by the United States Fish and Wildlife Service.

An increased number of cowbirds (a species that likes areas where grassland and forests meet) would be an indicator of
a) overharvest of timber.
b) overgrazing of grasslands.
c) increased edge habitat.
d) decreased biodiversity.
e) lack of proper habitat management.

c) increased edge habitat.

Which nation listed below has the highest deforestation rate?
a) Brazil
b) Russia
c) Japan
d) India
e) Canada

a) Brazil

A promising approach to encourage conservation and preservation in developing countries is
a) utilitarian conservation.
b) biocentric preservation.
c) the REDD program.
d) ecosystem management.
e) pastoralism.

c) the REDD program.

One possible solution to the problem of insufficient land area for preserves is to use _______________ to link smaller habitat areas.
a) highways
b) eco-bridges
c) edge effects
d) corridors
e) none of these are correct.

d) corridors

United States national parks are managed by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service.
a) True
b) False

b) False

The loss of forests can affect rainfall patterns.
a) True
b) False

a) True

Marine reserves are more common and easier to manage than terrestrial reserves.
a) True
b) False

b) False

biomes

Large biological community and vary with LATITUDE

biodiversity

The number and variety of biological species that live in a biome

vertical zonation

A term applied to vegetation zones defined by Altitude

How much of the Earth’s surface is covered by water?

3/4

tropical rainforests

Exist where rainfall is abundant, more than 200 cm or 80 inches per year and temperatures are warm to hot all year round

tropical seasonal forests

Drought tolerant forests that look brown and dormant in the dry season but burst into vivid green during rainy months

grasslands

Where there is too little rainfall to support forest

savannas

Grasslands with sparse tree cover

deserts

Occur where precipitation is sporadic and low, usually with less than 30 cm of rain per year

chaparral

Annual spring flowers often bloom profusely, especially after fires

deciduous

Losing leaves seasonally

coniferous

Cone bearing

temperate rainforests

The wettest coastal forest

boreal forest

Northern Forest that lie between about 50° and 60° north

taiga

The extreme ragged edge of the boreal forest, where forest gradually gives way to open tundra

tundra

A treeless landscape that occurs at high latitudes or on mountaintops, has a growing season of only 2 to 3 months, and it may have frost any month of the year

phytoplankton

Algae or tiny, free-floating photosynthetic plants that support a marine food web

Benthic

In an ocean system that can be described by depth and proximity to the shore, benthic communities occur on the bottom

Pelagic

In Ocean systems that can be described by depth and proximity to the shore, pelagic zones are the water column

Coral reefs

Among the best known marine systems, because of their extraordinary biological productivity and their diverse and beautiful organisms. Reefs are colonies of minute colonial animals that live symbiotically with photosynthetic algae

Coral bleaching

The lightening of Reefs due to stress, often followed by Coral Death, is a growing and spreading problem that worries Marine biologists

sea-grass beds

Eel grass beds occupy shallow, warm, Sandy coastlines. They support Rich communities of grazers, from snails to turtles to Florida’s manatees

Mangroves

A diverse group of salt tolerance trees that grow along warm, calm marine coast around the world

Estuaries

Bays where Rivers empty into the sea mixing freshwater with saltwater

Salt Marshes

Shallow wetlands flooded regularly or occasionally with seawater, occur on shallow coastlines, including estuaries

Tide Pools

Depression’s in a rocky shoreline that are flooded at high tide but retain some water at low tide

Wetlands

Shallow ecosystems in which the land surface is saturated or submerged at least part of the year

Swamps

Forested wetlands – high productivity

Marshes

Wetlands without trees – high productivity

Bogs

water saturated ground fed by precipitation, and is composed of deeper layers of accumulated, undecayed vegetation known as PEAT – low productive

Fens

Similar to Bogs except that they are mainly fed by groundwater so that they have mineral rich water and specially adapted plant species – low productivity

Biodiversity

The variety of living things

Phylogenetic Species Concept

Identifies genetic similarity

Evolutionary Species Concept

Define species according to evolutionary history and common ancestors

HIPPO

Habitat Invasive Species Pollution Population of Humans Overharvesting

Fragmentation

The reduction of habitat into small isolated patches

Minimum Viable Population

The minimum size for a species

Island Biogeography

Species diversity is a balance between colonization and extinction rates

Invasive Species

Organisms that thrive in new territory where they are free of predators, diseases, or resource limitations it may have control of their population in their native habitat.

Overharvesting

Taking more individuals than reproduction can replace

Endangered Species

Species considered in imminent danger of extinction

Gap Analysis

Conservationists and wildlife managers look for unprotected landscapes, or gaps in the network of protected lands, that our reach and species involves mapping protected conservation areas and high biodiversity areas

Threatened Species

Likely to become endangered at least locally within the foreseeable future

The location of specific biomes can be based on what two predictions of moisture availability?

precipitation and temperature

What are the nine major terrestrial biomes, and what environmental conditions control their distribution?

1. Tropical Moist Forests (Cloud Forests and Tropical Rainforests) are found in areas with ample rainfall and uniform termperatures 2. Tropical Seasonal Forests are found in areas with distinct wet and dry 3. Tropical Savannas and Grasslands are found in areas where there is too little rainfall to support forests and are dry most of the year 4. Deserts are found in areas that are hot or cold, but always dry with less than 30 cm of rain per year. 5. Temperate grasslands are found in areas that are midlatitude where there is enough rain to support lots of grass, but enough rain for forests. 6. Temperate scrublands (Chaparral)are found in areas described as Mediterranean where the hot season coincides with the dry seasonwith hot dry summers and cool moist winters. 7. Temperate forests (Deciduous and Coniferous) are also in areas that are midlatitude but with a variety of precipitation conditions but mainly between 30 and 55 degrees of latitude. 8. Boreal Forests are found in areas north of the temperate zone typically 50and 60 degrees North with cold temperatures. 9. Tundra (Arctic and Alpine) can be found in areas with freezing temperatures most of the year at high latitudes or on mountaintops

Vulnerable Species

…

Why did ecologists want to reintroduce wolves to Yellowstone Park?

Ecologists wanted to reintroduce wolves to restore lost biodiversity because Yellowstone Park once had a large wolf population that was wiped out by farmers and ranchers. Without wolves, the population of elk and deer to explode, and they started to overgraze plant life in the area.

Describe the ocean systems by describing the depth and proximity to shore of each zone.

The major zones of the ocean are: 1. The intertidal zone, between the high and low tide marks; 2. The neritic zone, which extends from the coast to the edge of the continental shelf; 3. The oceanic zone, or zone extending beyond the continental shelf; 4. The pelagic zone, which is composed of all water above the ocean floor; 5. The epipelagic zone has photosynthetic organisms. 6. The mesopelagic, bathypelagic, abyssal(to 4,000m), and hadal (deeper than 6,000m) are all different depth levels 7. The benthic zone, or ocean bottom 8. The photic zone, or upper layer of sunlit water, extends from the coast to the open ocean. 9. The littoral zone are shoreline areas 10. The continental shelf is an undersea area that is a relatively shallow region along a continents coast

What do we mean by biodiversity and what are the three kinds?

Biodiversity is the variety of living things with unique and productive characteristics and the complex ecological relationships that exist between them. The three types of biodiversity are genetic diversity, species diversity, and ecological diverstiy.

Why are coral reefs, mangroves, estuaries, bogs, marshes, tide pools and wetlands biologically important?

Tidal shores support a variety of rich and diverse communities, for example, 1. Coral reefs have extraordinary biological productivity because their calcium-rich coral skeletons shelter the algae, and the algae nourishes the coral animals. Additionnaly coral reefs shelter countless species of fish, worms, crustaceans, and other life forms. Because they occur where the water is shallow and clear, sunlight can reach photosynthetic algae. 2. Mangroves are a diverse group of salt tolerant trees that grow along warm, calm marine coasts around the world. Because they grow in shallow, tidal mudflats, they help stabilize shorelines and blunt the force of storms. They also build land, by trapping sediment and organic material. Both marine species and terrestrial species rely on mangroves for shelter and food. 3. Estuaries are bays where rivers empty into the sea mixing fresh water with salt water. They are usually calm, warm and nutrient rich. They support emergent plants as well as young forms of crustaceans, such as crabs and shrimp, and mollusks. Perhaps the most compelling argument for their importance is that nearly 2/3 of all marine fish and shellfish rely on them for spawning and juvenile development. 4. Tide pools are depressions in a rocky shoreline that are flooded at high tide, but retain some water at low tide and their extreme conditions produce astonishingly diverse and beautiful life forms. 5. Wetlands, bogs, and marshes more importantly support rich biodiversity and are essential for breeding and migrating birds. While they occupy less than 5% of the land in the US, at least 1/3 of all endangered species spend at least part of their lives in the wetlands. Ther are critical for breeding, nesting and migration

List and describe the distinct vertical zones of a freshwater lake. What does the term thermocline mean?

The distinct vertical zones of a freshwater lake are: 1. The littoral zone is populated with emergent plants that create important functional links between layers of an aquatic ecosystem and they may provide the greatest primary productivity to a system. 2. The epilimnion zone is a warm upper layer that is mixed by wind and warmed by the sun. 3. The thermocline zone is a sharp temperature boundary in a moderately deep lake also known as a mesolimnion. 4. The hypolimnion zone is below the epilimnion zone and it is not mixed. 5. The benthos zone is the bottom of a lake and it is occupied by snails, burrowing worms, and fish. Oxygen levels are low here. By definition thermocline means a steep temperature gradient

How and why is radio/satellite telemetry being used to study animals?

Satellite telemetry has been used to study migration. It can help determine migratory routes, critical stopover sites and barriers to migration. With this kind of data, environmentalists can urge for the protection of sites where animals migrate, we can also see the impact of things like highways to ecosystmes.

Figure 5.15 shows chlorophyll (indicator of plant growth) in oceans and on land. Explain why green, photosynthesizing organisms occur on long bands at the equator and along the edges of continents. Explain the very dark green areas and yellow/orange areas on the continents.

Photosynthesis requires sunlight, and there is much more sunlight throughout the year around the equator. Along the edges of continents, the water is more shallow and therefore warmer than the middle of the ocean. This also promotes plant growth. Very dark green areas on the continents have high biological productivity, whereas yellow/orange areas are biologically rich.

What does the HIPPO refer to? Why are exotic or invasive species a threat to biodiversity?

Habitat destruction, invasive species, pollution, population (human), and overharvesting.

What does ESA do?

In 1973, the Endangered Species Act was passed to identify and protect animals at risk for extinction, plan recovery, assist landowners with their economic needs with needs of rare species and enforcement.

Have extinctions occurred in the past? Is there anything unusual about current extinctions?

Extinctions have occured in the past, but human involvement has increased the extinction rate more than at any other time in history.

Do the relative costs and benefits justify restoring a coral reef? A tropical rainforest? (

While it is really unfortunate that any living form should have to justify it’s own existence, fortunately a series of studies called The Economicx of Ecosystems and Biodiversity compiled research that value ecosystem services. They found that the value of restoring a coral reef more than double the cost it takes to do it and that the value of restoring a tropical rainforest is at least 100 times the cost. So the answer would be yes.

Identify the primary economic benefits of tropical forest and reef systems. Explain how each works.

The economic value of an ecosystem can be measured in terms of the "goods and services"–including climate regulation, water filtration, soil formation, and sustainably harvested plants and animals–that the ecosystem provides. Tropical forests lower air temperature, are the home of world’s great biodiversity, sustain varieties of biota, filter toxic waste ,help sustain water table, in addition to helping sustain top soil. The raw material, genetic resources and recreation and tourism also have extraordinary value. However, the primary value would be their ability to regulate the climate by lowering the air temperature. Reef systems sustain biodiversity, are the home of many colored marine fishes, and they become a constituent of marine sand in which the 2X part of marine algae reside, they also help guard an area against tsunamis, but their primary economic value is actuall in recreation and tourism.

1. Read the Case-Study: Protecting forests to prevent climate change. Summarize the case study and give your thoughts on saving individual species vs. saving habitat and representative biological communities. (1 point)

In the case study Norway partnered with Indonesia utilizing the REDD program, to reduce greenhouse gas emissions from deforestation and forest degradation by paying them to not cut down trees. In my opinion it makes more sense to save an entire Habitat or representative biological community as opposed to saving an individual species. Focusing on one species as opposed to the entire environment that it lives in can lead to disastrous consequences.

2. What activities threaten global forests? What steps can be taken to preserve them? (1 point)

Global forests are threatened by logging, building roads, the conversion of forest into small-scale agriculture, and shifting cultivation which is sometimes called "slash and burn" or Milpa farming. Forests can be preserved by limiting logging on privately owned lands, limiting the amount of road building, and by practicing minimum impact camping

3. Distinguish between tropical forests, temperate forests, grasslands, and marine ecosystems? (2 points)

Marine ecosystems are aquatic ecosystems that have a high salt content as opposed to freshwater ecosystems that do not. Forest on the other hand are distinguished by precipitation and temperature Temperate forest and grasslands occur in moderately moist and moderately warm climates. Tropical rain forests flourish in very wet and very warm climates

4. Why is road construction a challenge to forest conservation? Discuss the various forest harvest methods? (1 point)

Road construction is a challenge to forest conservation because it allows the entry into the forest by farmers, miners, hunters, and others who can cause further damage. Clear-cutting is a form of forest harvesting where every tree in a given area is cut regardless of size. Alternatives to clear-cutting include shelterwood harvesting were mature trees are removed in a series of two or more cuts, strip cutting, in which all the trees in a narrow corridor are harvested. However, the least destructive method is "selective cutting" in which only a small percentage of mature trees are taken in 10-20 year increments.

5. Discuss the acronym REDD and its role in global transportation emissions. (1 point)

The acronym REDD stands for Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Degradation of Forests. The goal of REDD is to slow climate change by paying countries to stop cutting down their forests. Because deforestation contributes about 20 per cent of global greenhouse gas emissions which is more than the entire global transportation sector, it makes sense to limit deforestation in order to offset the damage from transportation emissions.

6. How are the world’s grasslands distributed and what activities degrade grasslands? Why do some groups say grazing fees amount to a "hidden subsidy"? (1 point)

Grasslands, also known as prairies or steppes, are widely distributed over temperate parts of the world. After forests, they are most heavily used biome by humans. These are degraded by overgrazing and the conversion of fertile land to desert. Some people say that grazing fees are a hidden subsidy because the fees on public lands are far below market value. People with grazing permits pay less than 25% of what it would cost on comparable private land.

7. Why is ecosystem management the new policy rather than the multiple-use (economic focus) policy used until the late 1980’s? (1 point)

The "ecosystem" approach to managing the nation’s lands and natural resources stresses that plant and animal communities are interdependent and interact with their physical environment to form ecosystems that span federal and nonfederal lands. It is the new policy rather than the multiple-use (economic focus) used until the 1980’s because of the amazing comprehensiveness that it incorporates to include: the ability to incorporate goals for sustainable forest management, manage across whole landscapes, consider human needs, maintain biological diversity, utilize coooperative institutional arrangements, and generate meaningful stakeholder and public involvement to name just a few.

8. What were the original purposes of parks and nature preserves in North America? How about today? In the future? (2 points)

In North America the original purpose of parks and nature preserves was to provide a natural space for recreation and to preserve natural environments and initially those first parks were intended mainly for the recreation of growing urban populations. Today our national parks are also playgrounds for rest and recreation as well as havens for wildlife and places to experiment with ecological management and opportunities to restore ecosystems.

9. What is wilderness? Why are wilderness areas both important and controversial? (1 point)

Wilderness areas are areas that are stringently designated as areas that can have few or no human impacts. In some cases, human entry may be limited to scientific research groups. They are important as havens for wildlife and controversial because sometimes indigenous peoples live there and political priorities can change and in other cases a country may lack the funds, experience and trained personnel to manage the areas under their control.

10. What are some steps to help restore natural areas? Why is fire suppression a controversial strategy? (1 point)

Natural areas can be restored by utilizing alternatives to negative ways of harvesting trees like shelterwood harvesting, strip cutting and selective cutting. Some roads in forests can also be eliminated. Recent studies of fire’s ecological role suggest that attempts to suppress fires may have been misguided. Many biological communities are fire-adapted and require periodic burning for regeneration. Limiting fire from these forests has allowed woody debris to accumulate, greatly increasing the chances of a very large fire.

11. How is GIS (Geographic Information Systems) used in protecting Central African Forests? (1 point)

GIS can help villagers develop conservation action plans. GIS is also used to analyze deforestation, topography, and human use patterns, and to identify forest conservation areas that can increase chimpanzee viability.

12. How do the size and design of nature preserves influence their effectiveness? What do landscape ecologists mean by "interior habitat" and "edge effects"? (1 point)

A species survival can depend on the size of the preserve and it’s shape. Ideally, a reserve should be large enough to support viable populations of endangered species, keep ecosystems intact, and isolate critical core areas from damaging external forces. However, having several small reserves can provide insurance against disease. Nevertheless, given human needs and pressures, big reserves aren’t always possible. Edge effects is a term generally used to describe habitat edges: for example, a forest edge is usually more open, bright, and windy than a forced interior, and temperatures and humidity are more varied. Large preserves are considered better than small preserves because they have more core habitat: areas deep in the interior of a habitat area, and that core habitat has better conditions for specialized species than do edges.

13. What is ecotourism, and why is it important? (2 point)

Ecotourism is tourism that is ecologically and socially sustainable, It can be more beneficial in many places over the long term than extractive industries, such as logging and mining because of the long term social education that can occur.

14. What is a biosphere reserve, and how does it differ from a wilderness area or wildlife preserve? (1 point)

The IUCN has 5 categories of protected areas that are categorized based on the amount of allowed human impact or intervention: 1. Ecological reserves or wilderness areas have little or no allowed human impact. 2. National Parks allow low human impact. 3. Natural monuments and archeological sites allow low to medium impact. 4. Habitat and wildlife management areas allow medium human impact and 5. Cultural or scenic landscapes and recreation area allow the most of all five, with medium to high human impact. Biosphere reserves on the other hand are protected areas that are divided into zones with different purposes. Critical ecosystem functions and endangered wildlife are protected in a central core regions, where limited scientific study is the only human access allowed. Mexico’s Sian Ka’an Reserve on the Tulum Coast of the Yucatan is an example.

15. What is the MAB program and "landscape ecology"? (1 point)

MAB stands for Man and Biosphere Program, it is a design for nature preserves that divides protected areas into zones with different purposes. A highly protected core is surrounded by a buffer zone and peripheral regions in which multiple-use resource harvesting is permitted. Landscape ecology is the study of the reciprocal effects of spatial patterns on ecological processes.

16. List the three IUCN world conservation strategy objectives and the five categories of protected areas? Why is this important to the protection of the U.S. National Park System? (2 points)

The three IUCN World Conservation Strategies are : 1) Maintain essential ecological processes and life support systems ( such as soil regeneration and protection, nutrient recycling, and water purification) on which human survival and development depend. 2) Preserve the genetic diversity essential for breeding programs to improve cultivated plants and domestic animals; and 3) Ensure that any utilization of wild species and ecosystems is sustainable. The IUCN has 5 categories of protected areas that are categorized based on the amount of allowed human impact or intervention: 1. Ecological reserves or wilderness areas have little or no allowed human impact. 2. National Parks allow low human impact. 3. Natural monuments and archeological sites allow low to medium impact. 4. Habitat and wildlife management areas allow medium human impact and 5. Cultural or scenic landscapes and recreation area allow the most of all five, with medium to high human impact. These things are important to the protection of the U.S. National Park Systems because in recent years that park system as begun to emphasize nature protection and environmental education over entertainment and that agenda is also being adopted internationally, which can be a big support at a time when these parks are tragically underfunded.

REDD

Reducing Emissions from Deforestation station and Degradation of forests

Forest, Woodlands, pastures, and range lands together occupy almost _______percent of global land cover

60%

Where are most forests found?

While forests are widely distributed most remaining forests are in the cold boreal, northern or taiga regions and humid tropics

How does the UN Food and Agricultural Organization define forest?

A forest is any area where trees cover more than 10% of the land

Where is the largest tropical forest found?

The Amazon River basin

Where is the highest rate of forest loss?

Africa

Old – growth forests

Those forest that cover a relatively large area and have been undisturbed by human activities long enough that trees can live out a normal lifecycle and ecological processes can occur in a fairly normal fashion

Mono Culture Forestry

Single species single use intensive cropping

Deforestation

A complete change from forest to agriculture, urban areas or desert also any area that has been logged even if the cut was selective and regrowth will be rapid.

Clearcutting

The way lumber and pulpwood are harvested in the US and Canada, in which every tree in a given area is cut, regardless of size.

Shelterwood harvesting

Mature trees are removed in a series of two or more cuts

Selective cutting

The least disruptive harvest method, in which only a small percentage of the mature trees are taken in each 10-20 year rotation.

Name five products from Deforested lands

Oil and gasoline Food, cosmetics containing palm oil Paper products Aluminum Electronic components

Ecosystem management

An Integration of ecological, economic, and social goals in a unified systems approach to resource management.

Pastoralists

People who live by hurting animals

Desertification

The process of conversion of once fertile land to desert

Overgrazing

Allowing domestic livestock to eat so much plant material that it degrades the biological community

Rotational grazing

Confining animals to a small area for short time before shifting them to a new location

Abyssal and Hadal zone

The deepest layers of the ocean systems

Photosynthetic activity tends to be greatest near:

coastlines due to inputs of nitrogen and phosphorus runoff from land.

upwellings:

currents circulate nutrients and phytoplankton from the ocean floor back to the surface.

Littoral zones

Shorelines

Intertidal

Area exposed to by low tides

Pelagic zones

are the water columns or layers

Epipelagic zone

top layer

Deep-sea thermal vent communities include:

tube worms, mussels, and microbes

Ephemeral pools and streams support:

diversity in desert systems

Streams and Rivers:

described by longitudinal zonation from headwaters to mouth