child psych chapter 7

Which of the following statements about the role of psychoanalytic theory in modern child development research is true?

One of the lasting contributions of psychoanalytic theory is its ability to capture the essence of personality during each period of development.

According to Erikson’s psychosocial theory, a healthy outcome during infancy is dependent on the

quality of care giving.

According to Erikson, the psychological conflict of the first year is

basic trust versus mistrust.

In Erikson’s theory, the conflict of toddlerhood is resolved favorably when parents

provide young children with suitable guidance and reasonable choices

Twenty-two-year-old Daniel is overly dependent on his girlfriend. Daniel continually doubts his ability to meet new challenges. According to psychosocial theory, Daniel may not have fully mastered the tasks of __________ and __________ during infancy and childhood.

trust; autonomy

Which of the following statements is supported by research on emotional development?

Infants, children, and adults use diverse responses to express a particular emotion.

Babies’ earliest emotional life consists of which two global arousal states?

attraction to and withdrawal from stimulation

The social smile

is evoked by parent-child interaction

Development of the social smile

varies substantially with culture

Laughter

reflects faster processing of information than smiling

Sheldon, age 1, will most likely display a __________ smile for a friendly stranger

reserved, muted

Newborn babies respond with __________ to too much or too little stimulation.

generalized distress

From 4 to 6 months into the second year, angry expressions __________ in __________.

increase; both frequency and intensity

When an unfamiliar adult picks up Louisa, age 9 months, she begins to cry and struggles to get down. Louisa is exhibiting

stranger anxiety

Infants raised in Israeli kibbutzim

display far greater stranger anxiety than their city-reared counterparts.

The rise in fear after 6 months

keeps newly mobile babies’ enthusiasm for exploration in check

Imani, age 11 months, is wary of strangers. However, when his mother sits on the floor, Imani ventures a few feet away from her for a few minutes at a time, and then returns to her for emotional support. Imani is

using his mother as a secure base.

Infants’ emotional expressions are

closely tied to their ability to interpret the emotional cues of others

Baby Emma is learning to stand. Each time she falls, she looks at her dad. When he looks concerned, Emma cries. When he smiles and says, "You did it!" she tries again. Emma is using

social referencing

According to research on social referencing, which of the following responses from Tanner’s mom is the most likely to encourage him to get up and try again after he falls down while learning to walk?

laughter combined with saying "oopsie-daisy"

Which of the following are self-conscious emotions?

guilt, shame, and pride

Self-conscious emotions

involve injury to or enhancement of our sense of self.

Self-conscious emotions appear __________ of the __________ year.

in the middle; second

After being gently scolded for taking a toy away from his cousin, 20-month-old Rainer lowers his eyes, hangs his head, and hides his face with his hands. Rainer is expressing

shame

Self-conscious emotions

require adult instruction in when to feel proud, ashamed, or guilty.

Cross-cultural research indicates that

the situations in which adults encourage various self-conscious emotions vary from culture to culture

Evan covers his eyes when the Wicked Witch of the West appears on the screen while he is watching The Wizard of Oz. Evan is using

emotional self-regulation

Emotional self-regulation requires

voluntary, effortful management of emotions

Effortful control

is regarded as a major dimension of temperament

In the early months, infants

have only a limited capacity to regulate their emotional stress.

Which of the following statements is supported by research on emotional self-regulation?

Compared with North Americans, Japanese and Chinese adults discourage the expression of strong emotion in babies.

Gil describes his son as calm and cautious. He describes his daughter as cheerful and energetic. Gil’s descriptions refer to

temperament

Results from the groundbreaking longitudinal study on temperament conducted by Alexander Thomas and Stella Chess showed that

temperament can increase a child’s chances of experiencing psychological problems.

Bindi quickly establishes regular routines, is generally cheerful, and adapts easily to new experiences. In Thomas and Chess’s model of temperament, Bindi would be classified as a(n) __________ child.

easy

According to Thomas and Chess, the difficult child

is irregular in daily routines.

Alice is inactive, shows mild, low-key reactions to environmental stimuli, and adjusts slowly to new experiences. In Thomas and Chess’s model of temperament, Alice would be classified as a(n) __________ child.

slow-to-warm-up

In Rothbart’s model of temperament,

fearful distress and irritable distress distinguish between reactivity triggered by fear and reactivity due to frustration.

According to Rothbart, individuals differ not just in their reactivity on each dimension but also in

effortful control

Beginning in early childhood, capacitity for effortful control predicts

favorable development and adjustment in cultures as diverse as China and the United States.

Which of the following statements about observations of children conducted in the home or laboratory is true?

Researchers can better control children’s experiences in the lab.

Brendon reacts negatively to and withdraws from novel stimuli. He could be classified as a(n) __________

shy

Results of Jerome Kagan’s longitudinal research on the development of shyness and sociability found that

most children’s dispositions became less extreme over time.

Which of the following is more likely to be found in shy children than in sociable children?

a higher heart rate from the first few weeks of life

The overall stability of temperament is

low in infancy and toddlerhood

Observation of which of the following children is likely to provide a researcher with the most accurate long-term prediction of temperament?

Tyson, age 4

Research on the role of heredity in temperament indicates that,

identical twins are more similar than fraternal twins across a wide range of temperamental traits and personality measures.

Compared with North American Caucasian infants, Chinese and Japanese babies tend to be

less irritable

Research on sex differences in temperament shows that

girls’ advantage in effortful control contributes to better school performance

Studies indicate that children who possess the __________ 5-HTTLPR gene show increased irritability when their mothers’ anxiety about parenting increases.

short

Consistently, the short 5-HTTLPR genotype combined with maladaptive parenting leads to

externalizing problems, including defiance and aggression

In families with several children,

parents’ tendency to emphasize each child’s unique qualities affects their parenting practices

__________ involves creating child-rearing environments that recognize each child’s temperament while simultaneously encouraging more adaptive functioning.

Goodness of fit

Goodness of fit is

at the heart of infant-caregiver attachment

Professor Hardwick is interested in the strong affectionate tie children have with special people in their lives that leads them to experience pleasure and joy when they interact with those people and to be comforted by their nearness in times of stress. Professor Hardwick studies

attachment

In the 1950s, a famous experiment of rhesus monkeys reared with terry-cloth and wire-mesh "surrogate mothers" provided evidence that

attachment does not depend on hunger satisfaction.

The ethological theory of attachment

recognizes the infant’s emotional tie to the caregiver as an evolved response that promotes survival

Baby Jane has begun to develop a sense of trust. She expects that her mother will respond when signaled. But Jane does not protest when separated from her mother. In which of Bowlby’s phases does Jane best fit?

"attachment in the making"

Jazmin, age 18 months, cries and climbs on her mother when she attempts to leave Jazmin with a babysitter. Jazmin is displaying

separation anxiety

In which of Bowlby’s phases do children negotiate with the caregiver, using requests and persuasion to alter the caregiver’s goals?

preattachment

Separation protest declines during which of Bowlby’s phases?

formation of a reciprocal relationship

According to Bowlby, out of their experiences during the four attachment phases, children

construct enduring an affectionate tie to the caregiver that they can use as a secure base in the parent’s absence.

Three-year-old Cara knows that her mother will pick her up from preschool every day after snacktime. Cara seeks comfort from her mother whenever she is in an unfamiliar or stressful situation. These examples show that Cara has developed

an internal working model.

In designing the Strange Situation, Mary Ainsworth and her colleagues reasoned that securely attached infants and toddlers

should use the parent as a secure base from which to explore in an unfamiliar setting.

In the Strange Situation, Juan uses his mother as a secure base. When she leaves the room, Juan cries for a few minutes. When she returns, Juan seeks contact with her and then begins to explore toys once again. Juan is displaying characteristics of __________ attachment.

secure

In the Strange Situation, Richard is unresponsive to his mother when she is present. When she leaves, Richard reacts to the stranger in much the same way as to his mother. When his mother returns, Richard pays no attention to her. Richard is demonstrating __________ attachment.

insecure-avoidant

In the Strange Situation, Kimani seeks closeness to her mother and fails to explore. When her mother leaves, Kimani is distressed. When she returns, Kimani hits her. Kimani is displaying characteristics of __________ attachment.

insecure-resistant

In the Strange Situation, Antwan ignores his mother and displays and odd, frozen posture. He does not cry when his mother leaves the room. When she returns, Antwan looks away when she is holding him. Antwan is displaying characteristics of __________ attachment.

disorganized/disoriented

The Attachment Q-Sort

does not differentiate between types of insecurity

In low-SES families with many daily stresses, attachment generally

moves toward security.

Drawing on cross-cultural research on attachment, which of the following infants is most likely to display an insecure-avoidant attachment?

Gretchen, who is from Germany

Research on infant attachment of the Dogon people of Mali, Africa, revealed no one showed __________ attachment to their mothers.

avoidant

Studies of institutionalized adoptees indicate that

a first attachment can develop as late as 4 to 6 years of age.

Studies of adopted children who spent their first year or more in deprived Eastern European orphanages indicate that

fully normal emotional development depends on establishing a close tie with a caregiver early in life

__________ is moderately related to attachment security in diverse cultures and SES groups

Sensitive caregiving

Baby Ashley picks up her ball and says, "Ball!" Ashley’s father responds with a big smile and an enthusiastic, "That’s right! Ball!" In return, Ashley laughs. When Ashley is tired and crying, her father picks her up, rubs her back, and sings softly to her. Ashley and her father are engaged in

interactional synchrony

__________ adult-infant coordination, in which interactional synchrony occurs, is the best predictor of attachment security.

Moderate

__________ babies tend to receive overstimulating, intensive care

Avoidant

Which of the following statements about attachment is supported by research?

Mothers of resistant infants are often unresponsive to infant signals

Which of the following children is most likely to be receiving abusive or neglectful care?

Dante, whose attachment is disorganized/disoriented

Research reveals that at-risk infants

whose parents have adequate time and patience to care for them fare quite well in attachment security

The heritability of attachment is

virtually nil

Job loss, a failing marriage, financial difficulties, or parental psychological problems

can undermine attachment indirectly by interfering with parental sensitivity.

Parents who __________ tend to have securely attached infants and to behave sensitively toward them.

discuss their childhoods with objectivity and balance

Which of the following statements about the relationship between attachment security and infant child care is true?

The relationship between child care and emotional well-being depends on both family and child-care experiences

Research on the quality and extent of child care shows that

mother-child interaction is more favorable when children spend fewer hours in child care.

When interacting with their babies, mothers devote more time to __________ and fathers devote more time to __________.

physical care; playful interaction

Fathers

in the United States devote just over 4 hours per workday to children.

Which of the following statements is supported by research on fathers?

In the United States, Hispanic fathers spend more time engaged with their children compared to fathers in other ethnic groups.

Cross-cultural research demonstrates that

fathers’ warmth contributes greatly to children’s long-term favorable development.

Research on the Aka hunters and gatherers of Central Africa reveals that a strong father-infant relationship is

due in great part to an unusually cooperative and intimate marital relationship.

Nearly 2.4 million U.S. children live with their grandparents but apart from parents, in so-called

skipped-generation families

Many grandparent caregivers report feeling

emotionally drained and depressed

Which of the following statements about grandparents who are primary caregivers is true?

Warm grandparent-grandchild bonds help protect children from worsening adjustment problems, even under conditions of great hardship.

__________ is related to positive sibling interaction.

Maternal warmth toward both children

Peer sociability is

promoted by the early caregiver-child bond

Mounting evidence indicates that __________ determines whether attachment security is linked to later development

continuity of caregiving

Which of the following statements about attachment and later development is true?

A child whose parental caregiving improves can bounce back from adversity.

Newborn Uli displays a stronger rooting reflex in response to an adult’s finger touching her cheek than to her own hand touching her cheek. This finding demonstrates that Uli has the beginnings of

self-awareness

Emmett, age 4 months, looks and smiles more at video images of others than video images of himself. This discrimination reflects an

implicit sense of self-world differentiation

Which of the following children, when placed in front of a mirror, is most likely to respond to the appearance of a red dot on his or her nose by touching or rubbing his or her nose?

Jayla, a 21-month-old girl

When asked to push a wagon while standing on a towel attached to its rear axle, 21-month-old Maximus figures out that if he removes himself from the towel, the wagon will move. Maximus is displaying

an explicit body self-awareness

Ahmed, age 2, gives his favorite stuffed toy to his little brother when his brother falls down and starts to cry. Ahmed is displaying

empathy

Two-year-old Aisha tells her mom, "I good girl." This statement demonstrates that Aisha is beginning to develop

a categorical self

Children whose parents __________ typically do well in delaying gratification

encourage selective and sustained attention

Describe Erik Erikson’s psychosocial theory as it applies to the development of infant and toddler personality.

basic trust and autonomy grow out of warm, sensitive parenting and reasonable expectations for impulse control starting in the second year. If children emerge from the first few years without sufficient trust in caregivers and without a healthy sense of individuality, the seeds are sown for adjustment problems.

Using Thomas and Chess’s model of temperament, identify and describe the three categories of children. Do all children fit into one of these categories? Explain.

• The easy child quickly establishes regular routines in infancy, is generally cheerful, and adapts easily to new experiences. • The difficult child is irregular in daily routines, is slow to accept new experiences, and tends to react negatively and intensely. Difficult children are at high risk for adjustment problems—both anxious withdrawal and aggressive behavior in early and middle childhood. • The slow-to-warm-up child is inactive, shows mild, low-key reactions to environmental stimuli, is negative in mood, and adjusts slowly to new experiences.

Describe Bowlby’s four phases of attachment.

1. Preattachment phase (birth to 6 weeks). Built-in signals—grasping, smiling, crying, and gazing into the adult’s eyes—help bring newborn babies into close contact with other humans, who comfort them. Babies of this age recognize their own mother’s smell, voice, and face. But they are not yet attached to her, since they do not mind being left with an unfamiliar adult. 2. "Attachment in the making" phase (6 weeks to 6-8 months). During this phase, infants respond differently to a familiar caregiver than to a stranger. As infants learn that their own actions affect the behavior of those around them, they begin to develop a sense of trust—the expectation that the caregiver will respond when signaled—but they still do not protest when separated from her. 3. "Clear-cut" attachment phase (6-8 months to 18 months-2 years). Now attachment to the familiar caregiver is evident. Babies display separation anxiety, becoming upset when their trusted caregiver leaves. However, separation anxiety does not always occur; it depends on infant temperament and the current situation. But in many cultures, separation anxiety increases between 6 and 15 months, suggesting that infants have developed a clear understanding that the caregiver continues to exist when not in view. Besides protesting the parent’s departure, older infants and toddlers try hard to maintain her presence. They approach, follow, and climb on her in preference to others. And they use the familiar caregiver as a secure base from which to explore. 4. Formation of a reciprocal relationship (18 months to 2 years and on). By the end of the second year, rapid growth in representation and language enables toddlers to understand some of the factors that influence the parent’s coming and going and to predict her return. As a result, separation protest declines. Now children negotiate with the caregiver, using requests and persuasion to alter her goals.