Buad309 Chapter 7

________ is defined as the processes that account for an individual’s intensity, direction, and persistence of effort toward attaining a goal.
A) Leadership
B) Management
C) Learning
D) Emotional labor
E) Motivation

Motivation

The ________ dimension of motivation measures how long a person can maintain effort.
A) direction
B) persistence
C) intensity
D) knowledge
E) experience

persistence

what kind of individual will stay with a task long enough to achieve their goal?

motivated

The ________ element of motivation describes how hard a person tries.
A) intelligence
B) experience
C) direction
D) intensity
E) persistence

intensity

Which level of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs deals with satisfying one’s hunger, thirst, and other bodily needs?
A) safety
B) physiological
C) social
D) esteem
E) psychological

physiological

what is the lowest hierarchy of needs and what does it include?

physiological- hunger, thirst, shelter sex

8) According to Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, which of the following is a lower-order need?
A) social
B) safety
C) esteem
D) self-actualization
E) recognition

safety and physiological are lowest, self-actualization, social and esteem is the highest

If we consider Maslow’s hierarchy of needs in the context of Japan, Greece, and Mexico, where uncertainty-avoidance characteristics are strong then ________ needs would be on top of the hierarchy.
A) self actualization
B) security
C) social
D) esteem
E) growth

security

Which of the following needs in Maslow’s hierarchy refers to the drive to become what one is capable of becoming?
A) social
B) self-actualization
C) physiological
D) esteem
E) safety

self-actualization- growth, achieving our potential, and self-fulfillment

Why is Maslow’s theory criticized?
A) The concept of self-actualization was unfounded.
B) There is little evidence that needs are structured or operate in the way it describes.
C) The esteem need is a more powerful motivator than self-actualization.
D) Its terminology tends to alienate those to whom it is applied.
E) It does not adequately describe how an organization can satisfy higher-order needs.

there is little evidence that needs are structured or operate in the way it describes -no empirical substantiation -no evidence that needs are organized, unsatisfied needs motivate, or that a satisfied need activates movement to a new level

According to Douglas McGregor’s Theory Y, a manager assumes that employees ________.
A) need to be directed
B) prefer to be controlled
C) learn to accept responsibility
D) need to be micromanaged
E) attempt to avoid work

learn to accept responsibility- assumes employees can view work as being natural as rest or play and that the average person can learn to accept and seek responsibility

If Alberta is a categorized as a Theory X manager, which of the following behaviors is she most likely to exhibit?
A) She will empower her subordinates.
B) She will trust her employees to use their discretion in most matters.
C) She will strictly control all the details of any project she is managing.
D) She will delegate authority extensively to junior managers.
E) She will let her employees choose their own goals.

she will strictly control all the details of any project she is managing -manager think employees hate work, don’t trust employees and week they try to control work as a result

The ________ theory is also called motivation-hygiene theory.
A) hierarchy of needs
B) goal-setting
C) self-determination
D) cognitive evaluation
E) two-factor

two-factor -frederick hezberg

Which of the following theories proposes the idea of a dual continuum?
A) Maslow’s hierarchy of needs theory
B) self-determination theory
C) two-factor theory
D) cognitive evaluation theory
E) McClelland’s theory of needs

two-factor -dual continuum: opposite of "satisfaction" is "no satisfaction" and opposite of "dissatisfaction" is "no dissatisfaction"

According to the two-factor theory, ________.
A) there exists a hierarchy of needs within every human being, and as each need is satisfied, the next one becomes dominant
B) most employees inherently dislike work and must therefore be directed or even coerced into performing it
C) employees view work as being as natural as rest or play, and therefore learn to accept, and even seek, responsibility
D) the aspects that lead to job satisfaction are separate and distinct from those that lead to job dissatisfaction
E) achievement, power, and affiliation are three important needs that help explain motivation

D) The two factor theory proposes that the factors that lead to job satisfaction are separate and distinct from those that lead to job dissatisfaction.

Which of the following is a motivational factor, according to Herzberg’s two-factor theory?
A) quality of supervision
B) recognition
C) pay
D) relationships with others
E) company policies

relationships with others

According to the two-factor theory proposed by Herzberg, which of the following is considered a hygiene factor?
A) promotional opportunities
B) quality of supervision
C) achievement
D) recognition
E) responsibility

quality of supervision others- pay, company policy, physical working conditions, relationships with others, job security

According to Herzberg, when ________ are adequate, people won’t be dissatisfied, but they will also not be satisfied.
A) achievement needs
B) affiliation needs
C) motivational factors
D) power needs
E) hygiene factors

hygiene factors

McClelland’s theory is based on which of the following needs?
A) stability, growth, and security
B) achievement, power, and affiliation
C) self-actualization, stability, and safety
D) hygiene, control, and security
E) control, status, and self-actualization

achievement, power and affiliation nAck, nPow, nAff

Erika wants to become the head of the HR department. Although the role comes with a generous salary hike and will put her in charge of several subordinates, she is mainly pursuing this position because she believes she can do the job better than anyone else and wants people to know this. According to McClelland’s theory of needs, which of the following needs is Erika primarily driven by in this case?
A) the need for stability
B) the need for achievement
C) the need for security
D) the need for affiliation
E) the need for power

need for achievement- drive to excel

Which of the following statements is true according to McClelland’s theory of needs ?
A) People with a high achievement need prefer tasks that have a high level of risk.
B) People with a high achievement need are interested in motivating others to do well.
C) People with a high need for power and affiliation often make good managers in large firms.
D) People with a high achievement need experience great satisfaction from success that comes by luck.
E) People with a high need for power and a low need for affiliation often make the best managers.

e) needs for affiliation and power are related to managerial success -best managers have high need for power and low need for affiliation -high power motivate may be a requirement for managerial effectiveness

Which of following needs, as detailed by Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, best corresponds to McClelland’s need for affiliation?
A) safety
B) social
C) esteem
D) self-actualization
E) physiological

social Maslow- need for affection, belongingness, acceptance, and friendship McClelland- desire for friendly and close relationships

Which of the following theories proposes that people prefer to feel they have control over their actions, so anything that makes a previously enjoyed task feel more like an obligation than a freely chosen activity will undermine motivation?
A) self-serving theory
B) motivation-hygiene theory
C) two-factor theory
D) self-determination theory
E) goal setting theory

self-determination- people prefer to feel they have control over their actions, so any previously enjoyed task that feels like an obligation than a chosen will undermine motivation

Which of the following statements is true regarding the cognitive evaluation theory?
A) People need extrinsic rewards in order to be motivated.
B) Extrinsic rewards tend to reduce intrinsic interest in a task.
C) Intrinsic rewards are almost as effective as extrinsic rewards.
D) Externally imposed standards of work largely improve intrinsic motivation.
E) Extrinsic rewards, including verbal praise, significantly decrease intrinsic motivation.

Extrinsic rewards tend to reduce intrinsic interest in a task

Self-determination theory proposes that in addition to being driven by a need for autonomy, people seek ways to achieve ________.
A) competence and positive connections
B) high rewards
C) recognition and status
D) career growth
E) power and control

competence and positive connections

Rachel’s parents used to pay her an allowance every week to feed the cats and to do a few other chores around the house. However, once her mother lost her job, her parents stopped giving her an allowance. Although Rachel quit making her bed every morning, she still continued to feed the cats. Which of the following best explains why Rachel continues to feed the cats?
A) Without the extrinsic reward, the task itself is eliminated.
B) With the extrinsic reward, the execution of the task relies on internal motivation.
C) Without the intrinsic reward, the execution of the task relies on external motivation.
D) Without the extrinsic reward, the execution of the task relies on internal motivation.
E) With the intrinsic reward, the execution of the task relies on external motivation.

D)By eliminating the extrinsic reward (the allowance), the explanation for Rachel’s behavior (continuing to feed the cats) shifts from an external motivation to an internal motivation. Rachel must enjoy or feel some other internal desire to continue feeding the cats.

The concept of ________ considers how strongly peoples’ reasons for pursuing goals are consistent with their interests and core values.
A) self-serving bias
B) self-fulfilling prophecy
C) self-concordance
D) self-actualization
E) self-efficacy

self-concordance -A recent outgrowth of self-determination theory is self-concordance, which considers how strongly peoples’ reasons for pursuing goals are consistent with their interests and core values. If individuals pursue goals because of an intrinsic interest, they are more likely to attain their goals and are happy even if they do not.

The investment of an employee’s physical, cognitive, and emotional energies into job performance is called ________.
A) vicarious modeling
B) self-determination
C) job engagement
D) management by objectives
E) job analysis

job engagement -the investment of an employee’s physical, cognitive, and emotional energies into job performance.

Which of the following statements is true regarding goal-setting theory?
A) Goal commitment is more likely when individuals have an external locus of control.
B) Externally generated feedback is more powerful than self-generated feedback.
C) Generalized goals produce a higher level of output as compared to specific goals.
D) People do better when they get feedback on how well they are progressing toward their goals.
E) Assigned goals generate greater goal commitment in low rather than high power-distance cultures.

D) People do better when they get feedback on how well they are progressing toward their goals, because it helps identify discrepancies between what they have done and what they want to do. Self-generated feedback — with which employees are able to monitor their own progress — is more powerful than externally generated feedback.

According to goal-setting theory, goals are more likely to have a stronger impact on performance when ________.
A) goals have long time frames for completion
B) tasks are complex rather than simple
C) tasks are novel rather than well learned
D) goals are easy rather than difficult
E) tasks are independent rather than interdependent

E) Goal commitment is most likely to occur when goals are made public, when the individual has an internal locus of control, and when the goals are self-set rather than assigned. Goals themselves seem to affect performance more strongly when tasks are simple rather than complex, well learned rather than novel, and independent rather than interdependent. On interdependent tasks, group goals are preferable.

MBO emphasizes goals that are ________.
A) tangible, verifiable, and measurable
B) achievable, controllable, and profitable
C) inspirational, verifiable, and creative
D) tangible, rewarding, and assigned
E) profitable, attainable, and self-set

A) Management by objectives (MBO) emphasizes participatively set goals that are tangible, verifiable, and measurable.

MBO provides individual employees with ________.
A) personal performance objectives
B) greater work supervision
C) predefined targets
D) generalized feedback
E) clear-cut growth paths

personal performance objectives -As lower-unit managers jointly participate in setting their own goals, MBO works from the bottom up as well as from the top down. The result is a hierarchy that links objectives at one level to those at the next. And for the individual employee, MBO provides specific personal performance

Unlike in the case of goal-setting theory, MBO strongly advocates ________.
A) self-generated feedback
B) explicit time periods
C) participatively set goals
D) independent tasks
E) specific performance objectives

participatively set goals -Many elements in MBO programs match propositions of goal-setting theory. The only area of possible disagreement between MBO and goal-setting theory is participation: MBO strongly advocates it, whereas goal-setting theory demonstrates that managers’ assigned goals are usually just as effective.

The ________ theory is also known as the social cognitive theory or the social learning theory.
A) two-factor
B) self-determination
C) goal-setting
D) self-efficacy
E) reinforcement

self-efficacy

________ refers to an individual’s belief that he or she is capable of performing a task.
A) Emotional contagion
B) Affect intensity
C) Self-efficacy
D) Self-determination
E) Reinforcement

self-efficacy -higher self-efficacy, the more confident you have in your ability to succeed

According to Albert Bandura, the most important source of increasing self-efficacy is ________.
A) arousal
B) vicarious modeling
C) verbal persuasion
D) enactive mastery
E) cognitive learning

inactive mastery -gaining relevant experience with the task or job -if you do your job successfully in the past, you are more confident you will be able to do it in the future

Which of the following sources of increasing self-efficacy involves gaining relevant experience with a particular task or job?
A) verbal persuasion
B) enactive mastery
C) vicarious modeling
D) arousal
E) cognitive learning

inactive mastery

One of the sources of self-efficacy is ________, becoming more confident because you see someone else doing the task.
A) arousal
B) enactive mastery
C) visualization
D) vicarious modeling
E) verbal persuasion

vicarious modeling

With reference to the four sources of self-efficacy as proposed by Albert Bandura, verbal persuasion involves becoming more confident ________.
A) because you have gained relevant experience with the particular task or job
B) because you see someone else doing the particular task or job
C) because someone convinces you that you have the skills necessary to be successful
D) because you are rewarded for performing a similar task well
E) because you get energized or "psyched up" to perform the particular task or job

C) Verbal persuasion involves becoming more confident because someone convinces you that you have the skills necessary to be successful. Motivational speakers use this tactic a lot.

Which of the following ways of increasing self-efficacy is generally used by motivational speakers?
A) arousal
B) enactive mastery
C) focused training
D) vicarious modeling
E) verbal persuasion

verbal persuasion -involves becoming more confident because someone convinces you that you have the skills necessary to be successful. Motivational speakers use this tactic a lot

The Pygmalion effect is also called the ________ effect.
A) halo
B) self-concordance
C) Galatea
D) self-determination
E) pseudocertainty

Galatea effect

The best way for a manager to use verbal persuasion is through the ________, a form of self-fulfilling prophecy in which believing something can make it true.
A) confirmation bias
B) Pygmalion effect
C) anchoring bias
D) framing effect
E) Electra complex

Pygmalion effect

A(n) ________ is any consequence, immediately following a response, that increases the probability that the behavior will be repeated.
A) conclusion
B) reinforcer
C) goal
D) objective
E) referent

reinforcer -behavior is controlled by reinforcers

The proponents of reinforcement theory view behavior as ________.
A) the result of a cognitive process
B) environmentally caused
C) a reflection of the inner state of the individual
D) a function of one’s power need
E) a product of heredity

B) Reinforcement theory takes a behavioristic approach, arguing that reinforcement conditions behavior. Reinforcement theorists see behavior as environmentally caused

________ argues that people learn to behave to get something they want or to avoid something they don’t want.
A) Theory Y
B) Theory X
C) Social cognitive theory
D) Operant conditioning theory
E) McClelland’s theory of needs

operant conditioning theory -Unlike reflexive or unlearned behavior, operant behavior is influenced by the reinforcement or lack of reinforcement brought about by its consequences.

To get the best results while using reinforcement theory, rewards should be ________.
A) small and given only once
B) large and given at irregular intervals
C) given prior to the desired behavior response
D) given immediately following the desired behavior
E) presented publicly with a large number of witnesses

given immediately following the desired behavior -People will most likely engage in desired behaviors if they are positively reinforced for doing so -Rewards are most effective if they immediately follow the desired response; and that behavior that is not rewarded, or is punished, is less likely to be repeated

Helen, a high school teacher, wants her students to actively participate more in class. She has decided to use reinforcement theory to get the required results. Which of the following methods is she most likely to use?
A) She is going to call on students who never participate.
B) She is going to yell at students, telling them that they are not making good grades.
C) She is going to ask the students that always participate to allow the others to have a chance.
D) She is going to model what active participation should look like, at the beginning of class.
E) She is going to give students an extra mark each time that they contribute.

E) Helen is most likely going to use operant conditioning in which she gives participating students additional marks. With this practice she is motivating the students by conditioning them to expect a reward each time they demonstrate a specific behavior (speaking up in class).

The concept of operant conditioning is a part of the broader concept of ________, which argues that behavior follows stimuli in a relatively unthinking manner.
A) equity theory
B) expectancy theory
C) cognitive behavioral therapy
D) behaviorism
E) humanism

behaviorism -Skinner’s broader concept of behaviorism -radical behaviorism rejects feelings, thoughts and other states of mind as causes of behavior =people learn to associate stim and response but conscious awareness of association is irrevelant

What is the limitation of reinforcement theory in explaining changes in behavior?
A) It does not adequately describe the original behavior.
B) It lays too much emphasis on feelings and attitudes.
C) Most behavior is, in fact, environmentally caused.
D) It ignores the effect of rewards and punishments on behavior.
E) It does not recognize the effect of cognitive variables.

it does not recognize the effect of cognitive variables -In its pure form, reinforcement theory ignores feelings, attitudes, expectations, and other cognitive variables known to affect behavior

According to social learning theory, which of the following processes demonstrates whether an individual is capable of performing the modeled activities?
A) attentional process
B) retention process
C) motor reproduction process
D) reinforcement process
E) motivation process

motor reproduction process -After a person has seen a new behavior by observing a model, watching must be converted to doing. The motor reproduction process demonstrates that the individual can perform the modeled activities.

George is trying to teach his two-year old son to gently caress their cat. George softly strokes the animal and every time his son does the same, he rewards him with kind words like "good job!" The child is very attentive during the process and claps his hands when his father praises him. However, as soon as George leaves, the boy lunges for the cat and grabs it by the tail. Which process of social-learning theory is failing?
A) attentional processes
B) justification processes
C) retention processes
D) motor reproduction processes
E) reinforcement processes

retention processes -Four processes determine a model’s influence on an individual: attentional processes, retention processes, motor reproduction processes, and reinforcement processes. The child is paying attention, reproducing the behavior, and receiving reinforcement. The learning process is breaking down at the retention process in which the individual is supposed to remember the model’s action after the model is no longer readily available. The child seems to immediately forget when his father leaves.

In equity theory, individuals assess the ________.
A) cost-benefit ratio
B) efficiency-effectiveness trade-off
C) quantity-quality trade-off
D) outcome-input ratio
E) quality of outcome

outcome-input ratio -Equity theory states that individuals compare their job inputs and outcomes with those of others and then respond to eliminate any inequities. Employees perceive what they get from a job situation (salary levels, raises, recognition) in relationship to what they put into it (effort, experience, education, competence) and then compare their outcome-input ratio with that of relevant others.

Karen graduated from college four years ago and has been working at Betaphy Inc. ever since. She has consistently received good performance evaluations for the quality of her work. She recently found out that her company hired a fresh college graduate with no experience at a salary higher than hers. Which of the following theories will Karen most likely use to evaluate this situation?
A) reinforcement
B) goal setting
C) equity
D) expectancy
E) operant conditioning

equity -Equity theory states that individuals make comparisons to referent others (compare their job inputs and outcomes with those of others and then respond to eliminate any inequities.) In this situation, because Karen is comparing income, it is likely that she will use equity theory.

According to the equity theory, there are four referent comparisons. The referent comparison known as other-inside refers to ________.
A) an employee’s experiences in a different position inside the employee’s current organization
B) an employee’s experiences in a different position outside the employee’s current organization
C) another individual or group of individuals inside the employee’s organization
D) an employee’s experiences in a similar position outside the employee’s current organization
E) another individual or group of individuals outside the employee’s organization

C) The referent comparison of other-inside refers to another individual or group of individuals inside the employee’s organization.

Self-inside, one of the four referent comparisons in the equity theory, refers to ________.
A) an employee’s experiences in a different position inside the employee’s current organization
B) an employee’s experiences in a different position outside the employee’s current organization
C) another individual or group of individuals inside the employee’s organization
D) an employee’s experiences in a similar position outside the employee’s current organization
E) another individual or group of individuals outside the employee’s organization

A) The referent comparison of self-inside refers to an employee’s experiences in a different position inside the employee’s current organization.

Other-outside is a referent comparison that refers to ________.
A) an employee’s experiences in a similar position outside the employee’s current organization
B) another individual or group of individuals inside the employee’s organization
C) an employee’s experiences in a different position inside the employee’s current organization
D) another individual or group of individuals outside the employee’s organization
E) an employee’s experiences in a different position outside the employee’s current organization
Answer: D
Explanation: D) The referent comparison of other-outside refers to another individual or group of individuals outside the employee’s organization.

D) The referent comparison of other-outside refers to another individual or group of individuals outside the employee’s organization.

Jim is a salaried employee whose job is to develop content for online web sites. He discovers that he is paid substantially more than his colleagues, even though their jobs and levels of performance are very similar. According to the equity theory, what impact is this discovery most likely to have on his behavior and performance?
A) He will reduce the amount of work that he does on a daily basis.
B) He will compare his earnings to those of another group of employees.
C) He will increase his productivity and/or the overall quality of his work.
D) He will seek a position within the company commensurate with his pay.
E) He will begin to look for a position outside of the company.

C) When people see themselves as overrewarded, it creates guilt. In order to reinstate a sense of equity, according to equity theory, Jim will change his inputs (exert more if overpaid). He will increase his productivity and/or the overall quality of his work.

Jackie thinks that she is paid a lot less than other employees in her division and feels extremely resentful. She starts taking long breaks and generally wastes time. Her actions resulted from a perceived lack of ________ justice.
A) interactional
B) interpersonal
C) procedural
D) distributive
E) associative

distributive -Equity theory focuses on distributive justice, the employee’s perceived fairness of the amount and allocation of rewards among individuals.

Edith believes that the methods for determining salary hikes and bonuses in her company are extremely unfair. In this case, Edith perceives a lack of ________ justice.
A) interpersonal
B) distributive
C) associative
D) procedural
E) interactional

Procedural justice -refers to the perceived fairness of the process used to determine the distribution of rewards.

Which of the following types of justice relates most strongly to job satisfaction, employee trust, withdrawal from the organization, job performance, and citizenship behaviors?
A) associative justice
B) interactional justice
C) distributive justice
D) procedural justice
E) integrative justice

procedural justice

Why do people who perceive themselves as victims of interactional injustice often blame their immediate supervisor rather than the organization at large?
A) Interactional justice or injustice is intimately tied to the conveyer of the information.
B) Interactional injustice usually occurs during face-to-face encounters.
C) When people are not treated with respect they tend to retaliate against those closest at hand.
D) Interactional injustice is in the eyes of those who perceive they are disrespected.
E) Interactional injustice is most often the result of the impersonal policies of the organization.

A) Interactional justice describes an individual’s perception of the degree to which she is treated with dignity, concern, and respect. When people are treated in an unjust manner (at least in their own eyes), they retaliate (for example, badmouthing a supervisor). Because people intimately connect interactional justice or injustice to the conveyer of the information, we would expect perceptions of injustice to be more closely related to the supervisor.

Which of the following theories discusses three relationships: effort-performance relationship, performance-reward relationship, and rewards-personal goals relationship?
A) goal-setting theory
B) self-efficacy theory
C) equity theory
D) expectancy theory
E) self-determination theory

expectancy theory -3 relationships

Logan is an employee who processes health insurance forms. Initially he was criticized by his supervisor for sloppy work, but thereafter he improved considerably. Now he consistently processes his forms without errors and even does more than his fair share of work. However, Logan’s supervisor has not responded to the extra effort he has put in, giving him no praise or monetary benefits. This leads Logan to believe that his supervisor is biased against him. According to the expectancy theory, in this situation, there is a problem in the ________ relationship.
A) rewards-personal goals
B) performance-awareness
C) performance-reward
D) performance-objectives
E) performance-achievement

C) The performance-reward relationship is the degree to which the individual believes performing at a particular level will lead to the attainment of a desired outcome. Employees sometimes, rightly or wrongly, perceive the boss doesn’t like them. As a result, they expect a poor appraisal, regardless of effort.

Oscar is looking for a new job. He used to be the company’s top sales representative and was eagerly expecting to be promoted. However, one of the regional manager’s friends was promoted to district manager instead. According to the expectancy theory, Oscar’s dissatisfaction with his current job stems from a breakdown in the ________ relationship.
A) performance-reward
B) effort-performance
C) reward-personal goal
D) satisfaction-effort
E) personal goal-self actualization

performance-reward -explains the degree to which the individual believes performing at a particular level will lead to the attainment of a desired outcome

According to the expectancy theory, the performance-reward relationship is the degree to which ________.
A) the individual believes performing at a particular level will lead to desired outcomes
B) organizational rewards satisfy an individual’s personal goals or needs
C) organizational rewards are perceived as attractive by the individual
D) the individual believes that exerting a given amount of effort will lead to performance
E) organization rewards correspond with the individual’s level of effort

A) According to expectancy theory, the performance-reward relationship indicates the degree to which the individual believes performing at a particular level will lead to the attainment of a desired outcome.

Mark is an excellent technical writer. He has never missed a deadline and all his projects are of superior quality. He now wants to telecommute two days a week, so that he can spend more time with his family. He feels that he has proven his reliability. However, his boss is unable to comply with his request and gives him a substantial raise instead. According to the expectancy theory, Mark’s disappointment demonstrates a breakdown in the ________ relationship.
A) performance-reward
B) effort-performance
C) rewards-personal goals
D) effort-satisfaction
E) performance-achievement

rewards-personal goals -indicates the degree to which organizational rewards satisfy an individual’s personal goals or needs and the attractiveness of those potential rewards for the individual.

With reference to the expectancy theory, which of the following examples indicates a weak rewards-personal goals relationship?
A) An employee lacks the skills required to reach the desired performance level.
B) An organization’s appraisal system assesses nonperformance factors such as creativity and initiative.
C) An organization rewards its employees based on factors such as seniority and skill level.
D) An employee believes that his manager does not like him and hence expects a poor appraisal.
E) An employee works hard in order to be relocated to the Paris office but instead is transferred to Beijing.

E) According to expectancy theory, the rewards-personal goals relationship indicates the degree to which organizational rewards satisfy an individual’s personal goals or needs and the attractiveness of those potential rewards for the individual. If an employee puts in extra effort to be relocated to the Paris office but instead is transferred to Beijing, then it indicates a weak rewards-personal goals relationship.

If a manager incorrectly assumes that all employees want the same thing, then according to the expectancy theory, it is most likely to result in a weak ________ relationship.
A) performance-achievement
B) effort-performance
C) performance-reward
D) rewards-personal goals
E) effort-satisfaction

rewards-personal goals -indicates the degree to which organizational rewards satisfy an individual’s personal goals or needs and the attractiveness of those potential rewards for the individual. So if a manager incorrectly assumes that all employees want the same thing then according to the expectancy theory, it is most likely to result in a weak rewards-personal goals relationship.

True or False: Motivation is defined as the processes that account for an individual’s intensity, direction, and persistence of effort toward attaining a goal.

True

True or False: According to Maslow, a need that is substantially satisfied no longer motivates

True

According to Maslow, lower-order needs are satisfied internally while higher-order needs are satisfied externally.

False -According to Maslow, lower-order needs are satisfied externally while higher-order needs are satisfied internally.

Under Theory Y, managers believe that employees inherently dislike work and must therefore be directed or even coerced into performing it.

False -Under Theory X, managers believe that employees inherently dislike work and must therefore be directed or even coerced into performing it. Under Theory Y, in contrast, managers assume employees can view work as being as natural as rest or play, and therefore the average person can learn to accept, and even seek, responsibility.

According to Herzberg, the opposite of "satisfaction" is "dissatisfaction."

False

According to the two-factor theory, adequate hygiene factors provide job satisfaction.

False -According to Herzberg, the factors that lead to job satisfaction are separate and distinct from those that lead to job dissatisfaction. Adequate hygiene factors avoid job dissatisfaction but they do not provide job satisfaction.

McClelland’s theory of needs proposes that the factors that lead to job satisfaction are separate and distinct from those that lead to job dissatisfaction.

False -The two-factor theory proposes that the factors that lead to job satisfaction are separate and distinct from those that lead to job dissatisfaction. McClelland’s theory of needs proposes that achievement, power, and affiliation are three important needs that help explain motivation.

According to McClelland’s theory of needs, when jobs have a high degree of personal responsibility and feedback and an intermediate degree of risk, high achievers are strongly motivated.

True

People who pursue goals for intrinsic reasons are more likely to attain their goals and are happy even if they do not.

True

According to goal-setting theory, a specific goal will produce a higher level of output than a generalized goal.

True

Self-generated feedback is a more powerful motivator than externally generated feedback.

True -People do better when they get feedback on how well they are progressing toward their goals, because feedback helps to identify discrepancies between what they have done and what they want to do. But all feedback is not equally potent. Self-generated feedback is a more powerful motivator than externally generated feedback.

Goal-setting theory strongly advocates participation in decision making, whereas MBO demonstrates that managers’ assigned goals are usually just as effective.

False -The only area of possible disagreement between MBO and goal-setting theory is participation: MBO strongly advocates it, whereas goal-setting theory demonstrates that managers’ assigned goals are usually just as effective.

Self-efficacy refers to an individual’s belief that he or she is capable of performing a task.

True -The higher your self-efficacy, the more confidence you have in your ability to succeed.

Individuals low in self-efficacy respond to negative feedback with increased effort and motivation.

False -Individuals high in self-efficacy seem to respond to negative feedback with increased effort and motivation, whereas those low in self-efficacy are likely to lessen their effort when given negative feedback.

Goal-setting theory takes a behavioristic approach whereas reinforcement theory takes a cognitive approach.

False -Goal-setting is a cognitive approach, proposing that an individual’s purposes direct his action. Reinforcement theory, in contrast, takes a behavioristic view, arguing that reinforcement conditions behavior. The two theories are clearly at odds philosophically.

Underpayment and overpayment, according to equity theory, tend to produce similar reactions to correct the inequities.

False -If we perceive our ratio to be equal to that of the relevant others with whom we compare ourselves, a state of equity exists; we perceive that our situation is fair and justice prevails. When we see the ratio as unequal and we feel under-rewarded, we experience equity tension that creates anger. When we see ourselves as overrewarded, tension creates guilt.

Procedural justice refers to the perceived fairness of the method used to determine the distribution of rewards.

True

Interactional justice refers to an individual’s perception of the degree to which she/he is treated with dignity, concern, and respect.

True

Workers around the world prefer rewards based on seniority over rewards based on performance and skills.

False -Workers around the world prefer rewards based on performance and skills over rewards based on seniority.

Describe the three key elements in the definition of motivation.

Motivation is defined as the processes that account for an individual’s intensity, direction, and persistence of effort toward attaining a goal. The three key elements in our definition are intensity, direction, and persistence. Intensity describes how hard a person tries. This is the element most of us focus on when we talk about motivation. However, high intensity is unlikely to lead to favorable job performance outcomes unless the effort is channeled in a direction that benefits the organization. Therefore, we consider the quality of effort as well as its intensity. Effort directed toward, and consistent with, the organization’s goals is the kind of effort we should be seeking. Finally, motivation has a persistence dimension. This measures how long a person can maintain effort. Motivated individuals stay with a task long enough to achieve their goal.

Briefly explain Maslow’s hierarchy of needs theory.

Maslow’s hierarchy of needs hypothesized that within every human being there exists a hierarchy of five needs. a) The physiological needs include hunger, thirst, shelter, sex, and other bodily needs. b) Safety includes security and protection from physical and emotional harm. c) Social includes affection, belongingness, acceptance, and friendship. d) Esteem includes internal factors such as self-respect, autonomy, and achievement, and external factors such as status, recognition, and attention. e) Self-actualization is the drive to become what one is capable of becoming and it includes growth, achieving one’s potential, and self-fulfillment. As each of these needs becomes substantially satisfied, the next need becomes dominant. So if you want to motivate someone, according to Maslow, you need to understand what level of the hierarchy that person is currently on and focus on satisfying those needs at or above that level.

Compare and contrast a Theory X manager with a Theory Y manager.

Under Theory X, managers believe employees inherently dislike work and must therefore be directed or even coerced into performing it. Under Theory Y, in contrast, managers assume employees can view work as being as natural as rest or play, and therefore the average person can learn to accept, and even seek, responsibility. Theory Y assumes that higher-order needs dominate individuals. McGregor himself believed that Theory Y assumptions were more valid than Theory X. Therefore, he proposed such ideas as participative decision making, responsible and challenging jobs, and good group relations to maximize an employee’s job motivation.

Explain how a manager motivates employees with reference to Herzberg’s two-factor theory.

According to Herzberg, the factors that lead to job satisfaction are separate and distinct from those that lead to job dissatisfaction. Therefore, managers who seek to eliminate factors that can create job dissatisfaction may bring about peace, but not necessarily motivation. They will be placating rather than motivating their workers. As a result, Herzberg characterized conditions such as quality of supervision, pay, company policies, physical working conditions, relationships with others, and job security as hygiene factors. When they’re adequate, people will not be dissatisfied; neither will they be satisfied. If we want to motivate people on their jobs, Herzberg suggested emphasizing factors associated with the work itself or with outcomes directly derived from it, such as promotional opportunities, personal growth opportunities, recognition, responsibility, and achievement. These are the characteristics people find intrinsically rewarding.

Explain, in terms of McClelland’s theory of needs, the relationship between the need for achievement and job performance.

First, when jobs have a high degree of personal responsibility and feedback and an intermediate degree of risk, high achievers are strongly motivated. They are successful in entrepreneurial activities such as running their own businesses, for example, and managing self-contained units within large organizations. Second, a high need to achieve does not necessarily make someone a good manager, especially in large organizations. People with a high achievement need are interested in how well they do personally, and not in influencing others to do well. High-nAch salespeople do not necessarily make good sales managers, and the good general manager in a large organization does not typically have a high need to achieve. Third, needs for affiliation and power tend to be closely related to managerial success. The best managers are high in their need for power and low in their need for affiliation. In fact, a high power motive may be a requirement for managerial effectiveness.

Explain the similarities between Maslow’s hierarchy of needs theory and McClelland’s theory of needs.

It can be noted that the need for achievement in McClelland’s theory is very similar to the self-actualization needs in Maslow’s. Both deal with the drive to become what we are capable of becoming which includes growth, achieving our potential, and self-fulfillment. The need for power in McClelland’s theory is similar in many aspects to esteem needs in Maslow’s theory. The need for affiliation is similar to the social needs in Maslow’s theory.

Why are people motivated by challenging goals?

First, challenging goals get people’s attention and thus tend to help them focus. Second, difficult goals energize workers because they have to work harder to attain them. Third, when goals are difficult, people persist in trying to attain them. Finally, difficult goals lead employees to discover strategies that help them perform their jobs or tasks more effectively. If they have to struggle to solve a difficult problem, people often think of a better way to go about it.

Explain what is an MBO program and discuss the common elements of MBO programs and goal-setting theory.

Management by objectives (MBO) is a program that encompasses specific goals, participatively set, for an explicit time period, with feedback on goal progress. The organization’s overall objectives are translated into specific objectives for each level (divisional, departmental, individual). But because lower-unit managers jointly participate in setting their own goals, MBO works from the bottom up as well as from the top down. The result is a hierarchy that links objectives at one level to those at the next. And for the individual employee, MBO provides specific personal performance objectives. Four ingredients are common to MBO programs: goal specificity, participation in decision making (including the setting of goals or objectives), an explicit time period, and performance feedback. Many elements in MBO programs match propositions of goal-setting theory. For example, having an explicit time period to accomplish objectives matches goal-setting theory’s emphasis on goal specificity. Similarly, feedback about goal progress is a critical element of goal-setting theory. The only area of possible disagreement between MBO and goal-setting theory is participation: MBO strongly advocates it, whereas goal-setting theory demonstrates that managers’ assigned goals are usually just as effective.

What is self-efficacy?

Self-efficacy (also known as social cognitive theory or social learning theory) refers to an individual’s belief that he or she is capable of performing a task. The higher your self-efficacy, the more confidence you have in your ability to succeed. So, in difficult situations, people with low self-efficacy are more likely to lessen their effort or give up altogether, while those with high self-efficacy will try harder to master the challenge. Self-efficacy can create a positive spiral in which those with high efficacy become more engaged in their tasks and then, in turn, increase performance, which increases efficacy further. Changes in self-efficacy over time are related to changes in creative performance as well. Individuals high in self-efficacy also seem to respond to negative feedback with increased effort and motivation, while those low in self-efficacy are likely to lessen their effort after negative feedback.

What are the four ways of increasing self-efficacy, as proposed by Albert Bandura?

The researcher who developed self-efficacy theory, Albert Bandura, proposes four ways self-efficacy can be increased: 1. Enactive mastery 2. Vicarious modeling 3. Verbal persuasion 4. Arousal According to Bandura, the most important source of increasing self-efficacy is enactive mastery — that is, gaining relevant experience with the task or job. The second source is vicarious modeling — or becoming more confident because you see someone else doing the task. The third source is verbal persuasion — becoming more confident because someone convinces you that you have the skills necessary to be successful. Finally, Bandura argues that arousal increases self-efficacy. Arousal leads to an energized state, which drives a person to complete a task. The person gets "psyched up" and performs better.

In the context of social learning, explain the four processes that determine a model’s influence on an individual.

1. Attentional processes: People learn from a model only when they recognize and pay attention to its critical features. We tend to be most influenced by models that are attractive, repeatedly available, important to us, or similar to us in our estimation. 2. Retention processes: A model’s influence depends on how well the individual remembers the model’s action after the model is no longer readily available. 3. Motor reproduction processes: After a person has seen a new behavior by observing the model, watching must be converted to doing. This process demonstrates that the individual can perform the modeled activities. 4. Reinforcement processes: Individuals are motivated to exhibit the modeled behavior if positive incentives or rewards are provided. Positively reinforced behaviors are given more attention, learned better, and performed more often.

What are the four referent comparisons that add to the complexity of equity theory?

1. Self-inside: An employee’s experiences in a different position inside the employee’s current organization. 2. Self-outside: An employee’s experiences in a situation or position outside the employee’s current organization. 3. Other-inside: Another individual or group of individuals inside the employee’s organization. 4. Other-outside: Another individual or group of individuals outside the employee’s organization.

According to the equity theory, what are the choices made by employees who perceive inequity?

Based on equity theory, employees who perceive inequity will make one of six choices: 1. Change inputs (exert less effort if underpaid, or more if overpaid) 2. Change outcomes (individuals paid on a piece-rate basis can increase their pay by producing a higher quantity of units of lower quality) 3. Distort perceptions of self ("I used to think I worked at a moderate pace, but now I realize I work a lot harder than everyone else.") 4. Distort perceptions of others ("Mike’s job isn’t as desirable as I thought.") 5. Choose a different referent ("I may not make as much as my brother-in-law, but I’m doing a lot better than my Dad did when he was my age.") 6. Leave the field (quit the job)

Discuss distributive justice, procedural justice, and interactional justice.

Distributive justice indicates the employee’s perceived fairness of the amount and allocation of rewards among individuals. Procedural justice indicates the perceived fairness of the process used to determine the distribution of rewards. Interactional justice indicates an individual’s perception of the degree to which she is treated with dignity, concern, and respect. Of these three forms of justice, distributive justice is most strongly related to organizational commitment and satisfaction with outcomes such as pay. Procedural justice relates most strongly to job satisfaction, employee trust, withdrawal from the organization, job performance, and citizenship behaviors. There is less evidence about interactional justice.

What are the three relationships in Vroom’s expectancy theory?

Expectancy theory argues that the strength of a tendency to act in a certain way depends on the strength of an expectation that the act will be followed by a given outcome and on the attractiveness of that outcome to the individual. The theory focuses on three relationships: a) The effort-performance relationship is the probability perceived by the individual that exerting a given amount of effort will lead to performance. b) The performance-reward relationship is the degree to which the individual believes that performing at a particular level will lead to the attainment of a desired outcome. c) The rewards-personal goals relationship is the degree to which organizational rewards satisfy an individual’s personal goals or needs and the attractiveness of those potential rewards for the individual.

Explain how the different relationships in expectancy theory are related to distributive justice and procedural justice in equity theory.

Historically, equity theory focused on distributive justice, the employee’s perceived fairness of the amount and allocation of rewards among individuals and who received them. Equity also considers procedural justice, the perceived fairness of the process used to determine the distribution of rewards. Expectancy theory focuses on three relationships 1. Effort-performance relationship: The probability perceived by the individual that exerting a given amount of effort will lead to performance. 2. Performance-reward relationship: The degree to which the individual believes performing at a particular level will lead to the attainment of a desired outcome. 3. Rewards-personal goals relationship: The degree to which organizational rewards satisfy an individual’s personal goals or needs and the attractiveness of those potential rewards for the individual. The relationships in expectancy theory are similar to distributive and procedural justice in that they both rely on a fair and objective appraisal. If the appraisal isn’t fair in the effort-performance relationship, the employee lacks the motivation to work hard. This is because regardless of the person’s level of motivation, the procedure of appraisal is prejudiced.