Adolescent psych Chapter 1-4

menarche

first menstruation (most important change in female body in puberty -occurs in mid late gonadarche in girls – occurs after secondary sex characteristic usually followed after two years of ovulation – girls appear more physically mature b4 they are capable of reproduction

Scientific method

think of problem Collect data analyze data draw conclusions

Theory

ideas that explains predictions

Hypothesis

Predictions that can be tested

Naturalistic observation

observing world no controls

Collecting DATA

surveys standardized test

Physiological measures of collecting data

-Hormones in blood stream -Body composition Brain activity using neuroimaging

Experience sampling method

pagers (immediate report of situation random times )

Case Study

Single individual studied – use individual with unique aspect -cannot generalize

Descriptive research

observe and record behavior

Correlational research

establishes strength of relationship

Experimental research

can show causality(cause and effect)

Correlational coefficient

# that describes degrees of association between two variable -1-+1 higher the correlation can eiher be + or – the more associated they are 0 means no correlation does not answer cause and effect just correlated

Boundaries of Adolescence
-Biologically
-Emotionally
-cognitive
-interpersonal
-social
-educational
-legal
-chronological
-cultural

-Biologically: onset of puberty -Emotionally: beginning of detachment to parents -cognitive: mor advance reasoning abilities -interpersonal: shift of interest from parental to peers relations -social:adult work, family and citizen roles -educational: enter junior high -legal: attainment of juvenile status -chronological: reaching age of adolescence -cultural: ceremonies right of passage

Ending of Adolescence:
-Biologically
-Emotionally
-cognitive
-interpersonal
-social
-educational
-legal
-chronological
-cultural

-Biologically: capable of sexual reproduction -Emotionally: separate sense of identity -cognitive: avance reasoning abilities -interpersonal: capacity to be intimate with peers -social: receive: adult status, and privileges -educational: finishing schooling -legal: majority status -chronological:reaching designated age of adulthood 21 years -cultural : completion of ceremonies

Puberty

marker for the beginning of adolescence; generally, puberty ends long before adolescence ends HPG activated

3 Major physical changes of puberty

Adolescent growth spurt – development of primary sex characteristics (gonads – development of secondary sex characteristics ( breast and pubic hair )

endocrine system

System in body that produces and regulates hormones

hormones

specialized substance secreted one or more endocrine gland

glands

organs that stimulate parts of body to respond to hormone

gonadotropin- releasing hormone (GnRH) neurons

specialized neurons activated by puberty hormones

pituitary gland

chief gland regulates levels of hormones in body – endocrine gland that regulates other glands and secretes FSH and LH (LH-RF (luteinizing hormone-releasing factor) and FSH-RF (follicle- stimulating hormone-releasing factor) stimulate pituitary gland) -stimulates other glands -influences growth through growth hormones it sends to thyroid stimulating hormone – sends hormones to adrenal glands

hypothalamus

controls function of pituitary gland -interacts w/ pituitary gland to monitor the bodily regulation of hormones – monitor eating drinking and sex

gonads

gland that secretes sex hormones in males and females

testes

male gonads

ovaries

female gonads

androgens

type of sex hormone secreted by gonads – found in both sexes ( but higher levels in males after puberty) -ex: testosterone is an androgen

estrogen

type of sex hormone secreted by gonads (both sexes) -higher level in females after puberty

(HPG) hypothalamic pituitary gonadal axis

– The neurophysiological pathway that involves the hypothalamus, pituitary gland and the gonads

What triggers puberty

– something signals (HPG) to turn on – mature sexual partners – nutritional resources -physically mature enough -leptin (proteins that produce fat cells) Stop the inhibition of puberty

Adrenarche

The maturation of Adrenal glands -contributes to body order signals beginning of sexual maturation – physical changes

Age that pubery takes place in on average

depends on heredity and environment – 9-16 years of age

Testosterone

-Type of androgen – make pubertal development – cause development of external genitals – increase height -voice changes -sexual desire and activity

Estradiol

– type of estrogen -cause breast development – uterine development – skeletal changes unclear relations of sexual desire

Thyroid gland

interacts w/ the pituitary gland to influence the growth of skeletal maturation

Adrenal gland

interacts w/ pituitary gland – likely plays role in pubertal dev. – starts at about 6-9 w/ girls and year later with boys

LH-RF

(luteinizing hormone-releasing factor) stimulate pituitary gland stimulate gonads

FSH-RF (follicle- stimulating hormone-releasing factor) stimulate pituitary gland

(follicle- stimulating hormone-releasing factor) stimulate pituitary gland gonads

The Feedback System of Sex Hormones – The hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis (HPG)

Hypothalamus—GnRH–> piuitary gland —-LH,FSH–>gonads –>estrogens and androgens

Gonadache

after adrenarche by about two years – include primary sexual characteristics (ovaries and testes) -secondary sexual characteristics (pubic hair and genital development)

Spermarche

-first ejaculation of semen -early or mid gonadarche in boys

Growth Spurt
boys
girls

-most rapid growth(height and weight) since infancy -stimulated by release in hormones androgens and thyroid hormones – girls around age 9 boys around age 11 -peak of pubertal change girls : 11 1/2 ( 3 1/2 inches per year) ( – at age 12 gain 12lb and gain hips – girls face rounder and softer boys: 13 1/2 ( 4 inches per year) boys gain average 20lb get broader shoulder -angular facial structure

Do Females Have a Prostate?

Skene’s paraurethral glands and ducts are homologous to the male prostate and may be referred to as the female prostate. Homologous means the two structures have a common embryonic origin, but a very different in adults (for example, the penis and the clitoris).

Left hemisphere of brain

speech processing

Descriptive research

observe and record behavior

correlational research

establishes strength of relationships

Experimental research

can show causality (cause and effect)

Independent variable:

factor manipulated

Dependent variable:

factor that is measured

Experimental group

group whose experience is manipulated

Control group

treated like experimental group in every way except manipulated factor ( not all experiment have one )

Cross sectional studies

studying ppl all at one time Pro; dont have to wait for aging Cons: no info about change or stability

Longitudinal research

same individuals over a period of time Pros; info on stability and change Cons: expensive – participants drop bias outcome

Growth spurt
Cephalocaudal vs proximodistal

Cephalocaudal : at birth growth top to bottom proximodistal: growth from center out – reversed in adolescence

Secondary sex characteristics
Sexual Maturation

growth of pubic hair – changes in appearance of sex organs -breast

Adolescent moodiness

not solely due to hormones but environmental factors

Changes in pattern of sleep

due to melatonin and seretoion – environment

Family relationship

more conflict and distance from parents -can be due to -hormones physical appearance – life style etc

The physical transformation from child to adult is called:
A) puberty.
B) early adolescence.
C) middle adolescence.
D) late adolescence.

A) puberty.

According to the text, puberty involves all of the following except
A) development of the primary sex characteristics.
B) changes in distribution of fat and muscle in the body.
C) development of secondary sex characteristics.
D) increases in intellectual functioning

D) increases in intellectual functioning

Which of the following statements about the production of hormones at puberty is false?
A) The body begins to produce several hormones that have not been present in the body up until this time.
B) There is an increase in the production of certain hormones.
C) Boys’ bodies produce more androgens and girls’ bodies produce more estrogens.
D) The feedback loop regulating the endocrine system’s set point for each hormone becomes increasingly important.

A) The body begins to produce several hormones that have not been present in the body up until this time.

The presence or absence of certain hormones early in life may "program" the brain and the nervous system to develop in certain ways later on. These hormones are considered:
A) androgens.
B) estrogens.
C) organizational.
D) activational.

C) organizational.

Which of the following statements about prenatal development is not true:

A) Up until about eight weeks after conception, all human brains are feminine.
B) Puberty is part of a gradual process that begins at conception.
C) All hormones necessary for puberty are present before birth.
D) The amount of cortisol exposed to the fetus is directly linked to the timing and tempo of puberty.

D) The amount of cortisol exposed to the fetus is directly linked to the timing and tempo of puberty.

Ten-year-old Luna’s budding feelings of sexual attraction are most likely explained:
A) by maturation of the adrenal glands through the process called adrenarche.
B) by maturation of the gonads through a process called menarche.
C) as rising levels of leptin instruct her hypothalamus to set the hormonal changes of puberty in motion.
D) as increases in sex hormones activate her HPG axis.

A) by maturation of the adrenal glands through the process called adrenarche.

The simultaneous release of growth hormones, thyroid hormones, and _________ stimulates rapid acceleration in height and weight during puberty.
A) pituitary glands
B) estrogens
C) androgens
D) thyroid glands

C) androgens

The adolescent growth spurt:
A) generally begins two years earlier for girls than for boys.
B) generally begins two years earlier for boys than for girls.
C) is slower in the early adolescent years, then speeds up around age 15 for boys and girls.
D) proceeds along a smooth and rapid course over the teen years.

A) generally begins two years earlier for girls than for boys.

Who is at the greatest risk of developing body dissatisfaction?
A) Callie, an early-maturing, affluent Caucasian girl who compares herself to her friends
B) Miranda, a late-maturing African-American girl
C) John, an early-maturing African-American male who compares himself to his friends
D) Mike, a late-maturing Caucasian male who feels he is not muscular enough

A) Callie, an early-maturing, affluent Caucasian girl who compares herself to her friends

Although both sexes experience changes in muscle tissue and body fat, the ratio of muscle to body fat is:
A) greater in boys than girls.
B) greater in girls than boys.
C) about the same in both genders.
D) greater in early maturing girls than in late-maturing boys.

A) greater in boys than girls.

The rapid increase in body fat that adolescent girls experience:
A) leads to a majority of adolescent girls dieting unnecessarily.
B) leads to an increase in healthy eating patterns among adolescent girls.
C) increases vulnerability to feelings of body dissatisfaction for African-American adolescent girls.
D) is seen by the Centers for Disease Control as a major risk factor for obesity among adolescent girls.

A) leads to a majority of adolescent girls dieting unnecessarily.

All of the following are reasons that males have greater gains in strength than females during early adolescence, except:
A) increased production of androgens.
B) strong societal pressures on girls to decrease their physical activity in preadolescence.
C) inadequate nutrition among adolescent girls.
D) adolescent girls’ increase in body fat.

B) strong societal pressures on girls to decrease their physical activity in preadolescence.

Which of the following is probably true for Ashley, an early-maturing girl who was short and stocky as a child?
A) After puberty, she will be shorter and heavier than her late-maturing peers.
B) After puberty, she will be shorter and thinner than her late-maturing peers.
C) After puberty, she will be taller and heavier than her late-maturing peers.
D) After puberty, she will be taller and thinner than her late-maturing peers.

A) After puberty, she will be shorter and heavier than her late-maturing peers.

The first sign of puberty in girls is generally:
A) budding of the breasts.
B) underarm hair.
C) menarche.
D) acne.

A) budding of the breasts.

Which of the following female sex characteristics is usually the last to develop?
A) menarche
B) regular ovulation
C) development of the nipples of the breasts
D) growth of pubic hair

B) regular ovulation

Which of the following statements about the timing and tempo of sexual maturation is true?
A) In the United States, and in all other countries, menarche typically occurs around age 12.
B) The duration of puberty varies widely – from 1.5 to 6 years in girls and 2 to 5 years in boys.
C) Adolescents who begin puberty early are also those who complete it early.
D) Adolescents who begin puberty earlier usually grow to be taller adults.

B) The duration of puberty varies widely – from 1.5 to 6 years in girls and 2 to 5 years in boys.

Based on research addressing ethnic differences in the timing and rate of pubertal maturation, which girl would be expected to be the earliest to mature?
A) Anslyene, a middle-income African American
B) Miranda, a middle-income Hispanic American
C) Emily, a low-income Anglo American
D) Kimberly, a middle-income Anglo American

A) Anslyene, a middle-income African American

Differences in the timing and rate of puberty among individuals growing up in the same general environment are largely caused by:
A) hormonal factors.
B) genetic factors.
C) environmental factors.
D) None of the above

B) genetic factors.

According to the textbook, Julie, a seventeen-year-old living in a college dormitory, has noticed that her menstrual periods have begun to synchronize with_____, which is compelling evidence that social relationships can affect biological functioning.
A) the time her female roommate menstruates
B) her most stressful days of the month
C) days she feels most sexually aroused
D) her biological sister living in a different city

A) the time her female roommate menstruates

Puberty began for Nancy when she was 9 years old. Her mother began puberty at 11 years. For her grandmother, the onset was at 13 years of age. These changes in the age of onset of puberty over time are referred to as:
A) cross-sectional trend.
B) secular trend.
C) longitudinal trend.
D) physiologic trend.

B) secular trend.

The biological changes that take place during puberty can cause changes in adolescents’ behavior in all of the following ways, except:
A) directly.
B) by affecting the adolescent’s self-image.
C) by affecting the reactions of others to the adolescent.
D) All of these are ways in which biological changes occurring in puberty can cause changes in adolescents’ behavior.

D) All of these are ways in which biological changes occurring in puberty can cause changes in adolescents’ behavior.

A research design in which subjects of different ages are assessed simultaneously is called a:
A) longitudinal study.
B) cross-sectional study.
C) cross-sequential study.
D) correlational study.

B) cross-sectional study.

Which of the following statements about adolescent mood swings is false?
A) The effect of hormones on adolescent mood swings is strongest early in puberty.
B) Adolescents’ moods fluctuate during the course of the day more than the moods of adults.
C) Adolescent mood swings parallel their changes in activities.
D) Hormones play a greater role in the development of depression than do stressful life events.

D) Hormones play a greater role in the development of depression than do stressful life events.

Studies show that adolescent mood swings parallel their changes in:
A) hormone levels.
B) family relationships.
C) nutrition.
D) activities.

D) activities.

Given a choice, Mike would rather stay up until 1:00 A.M. and sleep until 10:00 A.M. This pattern is called the:
A) secular trend.
B) delayed phase preference.
C) longitudinal design.
D) adolescent growth spurt.

B) delayed phase preference.

The delayed phase preference suggests that:
A) adolescents should not be taught sex education until high school.
B) school should be held year-round.
C) school should begin later in the morning.
D) school should begin earlier in the morning.

C) school should begin later in the morning.

Which of the following statements about puberty’s impact on family relationships is true?
A) Puberty appears to increase distance between parents and children.
B) Other species do not experience distance during the pubertal transition.
C) Being an early maturing adolescent has more impact on family tension than being a late maturing adolescent.
D) Puberty does not interfere with family relations.

A) Puberty appears to increase distance between parents and children.

Which of the following girls will experience the greatest menstrual discomfort?
A) Sarita, who is prepared for the physical changes
B) Alison, who is a late maturer
C) Loryn, who has a negative attitude toward menarche
D) Janet, who is unpopular among her classmates

C) Loryn, who has a negative attitude toward menarche

Which of the following conditions is most likely to produce the most favorable and easiest adjustment to menarche?
A) when the girl’s mother prepares her by describing the unpleasant aspects of menarche
B) when the girl reaches menarche early
C) when menarche occurs before the girl has been told about the physical changes which will occur
D) when the girl knows the facts about the physical changes her body will undergo

D) when the girl knows the facts about the physical changes her body will undergo

Suzanne and Greg are the first members of their class to begin the pubertal transition. Based on what you know about early maturing adolescents, Suzanne and Greg are more likely to:
A) become involved in deviant activities.
B) do better in school.
C) be ostracized by their classmates.
D) get along with their parents.

A) become involved in deviant activities.

Mike, an early maturer, is more likely to __________ than Bob, a late maturer.
A) experience pseudomaturity
B) suffer greater consequences if bullied by peers
C) fall in love ( suffer greater consequences if bullied
D) All of the above

D) All of the above

Avram is considered a late-maturing boy. A year after pubertal onset, we would expect Avram to show all of the following advantages over his early maturing peers, except:
A) greater popularity./ Athletic
B) more intellectual curiosity.
C) greater exploratory behavior.
D) higher levels of social initiative.

A) greater popularity.

Which of the following characteristics is not typically associated with being an early-maturing girl?
A) feelings of awkwardness and self-consciousness
B) being less popular, especially with boys
C) being more likely to become involved in juvenile delinquency
D) being less likely to pursue advanced education and a demanding career

B) being less popular, especially with boys

Which of the following is not an explanation for the sex differences in the impact of early and late maturation for boys and girls?
A) the cultural desirability of thin body types
B) the developmental readiness hypothesis
C) the maturational deviance hypothesis
D) boys’ greater involvement in delinquency(genetic make up )

D) boys’ greater involvement in delinquency

Follow-up studies of Swedish women who had been early maturers found that as adults they were:
A) unable to develop coping skills.
B) less likely to continue their education beyond high school.
C) more likely to continue their education beyond high school.
D) indistinguishable from those who had been late maturers.

B) less likely to continue their education beyond high school.

Which group is most at risk for obesity?
A) late maturing African-American girls
B) early maturing African-American girls
C) early maturing white boys
D) early maturing white girls

B) early maturing African-American girls

Ta’isha believes that "fat is beautiful" and has a steady diet of fried chicken, french fries, and cheeseburgers. Tanya believes that "thin is in" and uses vomiting and laxatives as a way to keep her weight down. Both girls exhibit what psychologists call:
A) disordered eating.
B) bulimia.
C) anorexia nervosa.
D) normal adolescent eating patterns.

A) disordered eating.

Theresa has been known to go on eating binges and then purge afterward. Theresa is probably suffering from:
A) anorexia nervosa.
B) bulimia.
C) oral fixation.
D) obesity.

B) bulimia.

The potentially fatal disorder in which young women actually starve themselves is called:
A) bulimia.
B) anorexia nervosa.
C) obesity nervosa.
D) purging.

B) anorexia nervosa.

Karen has been known to exercise excessively, count calories, and diet obsessively. She is currently depriving herself of food even though she is 20 pounds underweight. Karen is probably suffering from:
A) anorexia nervosa.
B) bulimia.
C) oral fixation.
D) deprivation syndrome.

A) anorexia nervosa.

Which of the following is not associated with the "new morbidity and mortality" of adolescence?
A) accidents
B) suicide
C) homicide
D) cancer

D) cancer

The most virulent threats to adolescent health come from all of the following, except:
A) unhealthy behaviors, such as drug use.
B) chronic disabilities, such as cancer and arthritis.
C) violence inflicted by themselves or by others.
D) risky activities, such as unprotected sexual intercourse.

B) chronic disabilities, such as cancer and arthritis.

Which adolescent is at highest risk for suicide?
A) Malcolm, an African-American male
B) Willie, a white male
C) Susan, a white female
D) Leonard, a Native American male

D) Leonard, a Native American male

When levels of _____&_____ fall below the set points, the _____ stops inhibiting the pituitary gland, thus permitting it to stimulate the release of sex hormones by the gonads.
A) leptin & thyroid hormones; hypothalamus
B) androgens & estrogen; adrenal gland
C) androgens & estrogens; hypothalamus
D) leptin & thyroid hormones; adrenal gland

C) androgens & estrogens; hypothalamus

changes in cognition (thinking )
Adolescents vs children

more sophisticated in their ability to:? (1) Think about possibilities? (2) Think about abstract concepts? (3) Think about thinking (metacognition)? (4) Think in multiple dimensions? (5) See knowledge as relative (relativism)

Deductive reasoning

logical reasoning in which one draws logically necessary conclusion from a general set of premises given

metacognition

process of thinking about thinking – introspection increased:think about own emotions – increase self contiouness -what other are thinking about you

imaginary audience

self consciousness of early adolescence "everyone is watching "

Adolescent Egocentrism

Imaginary audience personal fable – experiences unique (nothing bad can happen because they are special )

Personal fable

an adolescent belief that he or she is unique and therefore not subject to the rules that govern other ppl

Thinking in Multiple Dimensions

abiliby to view both sides of story understanding of probability sarcasm double ender

Adolescent Relativism

able to see things relative instead of absolute skeptical not black and white

Sensorimotor stage

Birth – 2 years (piaget’s view) – first stage of cognitive development – experiencing world though senses (touching looking grasping mouthing)

preoperational

2-6 years -2nd stage of cognitive development – representing things with words and images ue intuitive rather than logic

concrete operational

6-11years third stage of cognitive development thinking logically about concrete events -grasping concrete analogies

Formal operations

11+ early adolescence to adulthood the fourth stage of cognitive development Abstract reasoning

Piaget’s view
cognitive development view

perspective development base on piaget qualitative stage theory –

Adolescent Thinking: The Information-Processing View
Five areas of improvement:

Five areas of improvement: Selective attention and divided attention Working and long-term memory, autobiographical memories Processing speed Organization Metacognition

information processing perspective

A perspective on cognition that devices from the study of artificial intelligence and attempt to explain cognitive development in terms of the growth of specific components of the thinking process

selective attention

focus on stimulus while tuning out another

divided attention

process by which you pay attention to more than two stimulus at the same time

working memory

aspect of memory in which info is held short time while problem is being solved

long-term memory

ability to recall something from a long time ago

autobiographical memory

recall meaningful memories

functional magnetic resonance imaging fmri
DTI diffusion tensor imaging
EEG

techniques used to produce images of brain

Neuronal cell consist of

synapse: gap in space between nuerons across which neurotransmitter carry impulses myelination: process through which brain circuits are insulated w/ myelin which improves the efficiency of info processing

neurotransmitters

specialized chemicals that carry electrical impulses between neurons

synaptic pruning

process by which unnecessary connections between neurons are eliminated improving the efficiency of info processing -decreases grey matter – brain more efficient

prefrontal cortex

the region of the brain the esspecially important for working memory – improve info processing

temporal cortex

region of the brain that especially important in social cognition

limbic system
3 thing it affects
What are the changes that occur in limbic system ?
When does it occur ?

area in the brain that plays an important role in processing of emotional experience, social info and reward and punishment -changes in how brain is affected by certain neurotransmitters Dopamine: (role in experience of reward ) – more emo. -more responsive to stress – more likely to engage in reward seeking behavior (drugs etc -vulnerable to substance abuse depression and other mental health problems – limbic system matures at puberty seel novelt, reward and stimulation PFC matures few years later

Dopamine

role in experience of reward )

serotonin

role in experience of moods

myelination
how does it improve

process through which brain circuits are insulated w/ myelin which improves the efficiency of info processing – increases white matter – reflects improved connectivity w/in and between brain regions

Social transitions

social redef adolescence social invention (changes in status and inconsistency in age boundaries )

/Full maturation of pre frontal cortex
What in develops

not until late 20’s -becomes more focused – increase coordination of PFC w/other body parts – more efficient in info processing Dorsolateral prefrontal cortex(outter and upper areas of front of brain ): Important for planning ahead and controlling impulses Ventromedial prefrontal cortex(lower and central part of brain ): Important for gut-level, intuitive decision making and controlling impulses Orbitofrontal cortex (located directly behind the eye): Important for evaluating risks and rewards

Vygotsky thought intellectual development occurred in

zone of proximal dev. scaffolding

zone of proximal development

Vygotsky theory the level of challenge that is still w/in the individual reach but that forces individual to develop more advance skills

Scaffolding

structuring learning situation that is just w/in the reach of student

IQ

-stable – school may increase it

social cognition

aspect of cognition that concerns thinking about other ppl about interpersonal relations and social institutions

mentalizing

ability to understand someone elses mental state

theory of mind

ability to understand that others have beliefs intentions and knowledge that may be different -conception of law civil libery rights -obedience authority

social conventions

norms that govern everyday ppl in social situations

behavioral decision theory

an approach to understanding adolescent risk taking in which behaviors are seen as the outcome of systematic decision process -individuals try to maximize benefits of alternative courses of action and minimize cost – Adolescents see risk but are more attuned for reward

Which of the following is not one of the five chief changes in cognition during adolescence?
A) multidimensional thought
B) metacognition
C) abstract reasoning
D) increased imagination

D) increased imagination

Bickering and squabbling between teenagers and their parents is largely caused by:
A) the generation gap.
B) hormonal changes in adolescents.
C) adolescents’ ability to formulate counterarguments.
D) adolescents’ anti-social tendencies.

C) adolescents’ ability to formulate counterarguments.

Which of the following is not a characteristic of deductive reasoning in adolescence, as described by the text?
A) inhibiting a prepotent response
B) having the ability to stop oneself from acting automatically
C) making an inference based on accumulated evidence
D) recognizing when a question cannot be answered with certainty

C) making an inference based on accumulated evidence

The ability to see beyond what is directly observable and reason in terms of what might be possible is called:
A) social perspective taking.
B) hypothetical thinking.
C) imaginary audience.
D) formal operations.

B) hypothetical thinking.

Renee, a 6-year-old, is unable to answer the question, "How are a motorcycle and a bicycle alike?" Mohammed, a 17-year-old, answers the same question by saying, "They are both types of transportation." What statement about Renee and Mohammed is most true?
A) Renee’s inability to answer the question is very unusual for a child her age.
B) Mohammed has demonstrated the ability to think concretely.
C) Mohammed has demonstrated the ability to think abstractly.
D) According to Piaget’s theory, Renee and Mohammed are both developmentally delayed.

C) Mohammed has demonstrated the ability to think abstractly.

Abstract thinking

easier to think about interpersonal relationships

Adolescents develop the ability to think about social issues, a concept more generally referred to as:
A) socialization.
B) social cognition.
C) abstract reasoning.
D) metacognition.

B) social cognition.

All of the following are indicators of metacognition, except:
A) introspection.
B) self-consciousness.
C) intellectualization.
D) deductive reasoning.

D) deductive reasoning.

The erroneous belief that one’s thoughts, feelings, and experiences are unique is called:
A) an imaginary audience.
B) a personal fable.
C) propositional logic.
D) metacognition.

B) a personal fable.

John is a junior in high school. Although he is sociable, he feels very self-conscious. He feels as if everyone is evaluating him. David Elkind refers to this loss of perspective in adolescence as:
A) self-reflection.
B) personal fable.
C) imaginary audience.
D) impression formation.

C) imaginary audience.

Research testing Elkind’s theory of adolescent egocentrism has found that certain aspects:
A) peak at age 12 and then drastically decline.
B) may remain present throughout the adolescent and adult years.
C) are virtually a nonexistent phenomenon in adolescence or adulthood.
D) are less prevalent among college students.

B) may remain present throughout the adolescent and adult years.

Fifteen-year-old Hermione is able to write a much more complex answer than 10-year-old Ginger to the question, "Compare the advantages and disadvantages of using simple spells for self-protection." This is because, as an adolescent, Hermione is able to think:
A) egocentrically.
B) deductively.
C) in metacognitive ways.
D) in multiple dimensions.

D) in multiple dimensions.

What thought process helps adolescents appreciate the sarcasm and satire of Mad magazine and The Simpsons?
A) selective attention
B) sensation-seeking
C) mutual role taking
D) multidimensional thinking

D) multidimensional thinking

___________ theorists believe that changes in cognitive abilities appearing during adolescence are qualitative, whereas __________ theorists believe they are quantitative.
A) Cognitive-developmental; information-processing
B) Cognitive-developmental; behavioral decision
C) Information-processing; cognitive-developmental
D) Information-processing; behavioral decision

A) Cognitive-developmental; information-processing

Juan is 5 years old. His language skills are excellent, but his thinking skills demonstrate limitations such as egocentrism. What Piagetian stage of thought would you suspect he is in?
A) formal operational
B) sensorimotor
C) concrete operational
D) preoperational

D) preoperational

Rose solves a chemistry problem by systematically testing several hypotheses. According to Piaget, which stage is Rose functioning at?
A) preoperational
B) concrete operations
C) formal operations
D) sensorimotor

C) formal operations

Adolescent thinking can be distinguished from the thinking of children in several respects. All of these differences stem from improvement(s) in _____during adolescence.
A) abstract logical reasoning
B) personal life experiences
C) synaptic pruning
D) autonomy and personal responsibility

A) abstract logical reasoning

The improvements in organizational strategies seen in adolescence include all but:
A) increasing use of mnemonic devices.
B) becoming more flexible with strategy use.
C) increasing speed of information processing.
D) becoming more efficient with strategy use.

C) increasing speed of information processing.

Dr. Brown argues that adolescents can solve problems better than younger children because they can store more information in memory and because they have more effective strategies. Dr. Brown’s view is most consistent with which of the following perspectives?
A) triarchic theory of intelligence
B) information-processing perspective
C) psychometric theory
D) Piagetian perspective

B) information-processing perspective

Jesse is in the 7th grade at a school that has open classrooms with multiple teachers instructing their classes in one large area. Which of the following cognitive processes will help Jesse focus on his teacher?
A) working memory
B) selective attention
C) long-term memory
D) divided attention

B) selective attention

While studying for her biology exam, Jennifer watches her favorite show on TV. This is an example of:
A) selective attention.
B) divided attention.
C) short-term memory.
D) long-term memory.

B) divided attention.

All of the following are ways that scientists study brain maturation except:
A) by using DTI to see the ways in which various regions of the brain are connected
B) by using fMRI to examine patterns of activity in various regions of the brain while individuals are performing a variety of tasks
C) by electroencephalography to measure event-related potentials in response to different stimuli or events
D) by using fMRI to measure event-related potential in response to different stimuli or events

D) by using fMRI to measure event-related potential in response to different stimuli or events

The formation of synapses is:
A) almost entirely genetically programmed.
B) almost entirely formed through experience.
C) both genetically programmed and formed through experience.
D) random.

C) both genetically programmed and formed through experience.

All of the following statements about structural and functional change involving the prefrontal cortex during adolescence are true except:
A) patterns of activation within the prefrontal cortex generally become more focused
B) individuals are more likely to use multiple parts of the brain simultaneously and coordinate activity between prefrontal regions and other areas of the brain
C) the full structural maturation of the prefrontal cortex is not complete until the mid-20s
D) all of the above are true

D) all of the above are true

Which statement regarding increases in cognitive abilities is false?
A) Increases in cognitive abilities are due to growth in the size of the brain.
B) Pruning of the synapses leads to increases in cognitive abilities.
C) Changes in levels of neurotransmitters reduce sensitivity to reward, leading to an increase in sensation-seeking.
D) Maturation of the prefrontal cortex allows for complex activities such as planning, decision making, goal setting, and metacognition.

A) Increases in cognitive abilities are due to growth in the size of the brain.

Sternberg’s "triarchic theory of intelligence" proposes that to assess an individual’s intellectual capabilities it is necessary to look at three distinct, but interrelated, types of "intelligence":
A) verbal, mathematical, and spatial.
B) componential, experiential, and contextual.
C) componential, kinesthetic, and experiential.
D) verbal, mathematical, and interpersonal.

B) componential, experiential, and contextual.

When evaluating the three different forms of intelligence described in his triarchic theory of intelligence, Sternberg would disagree with which statement?
A) Individuals with high componential intelligence are more intelligent than individuals with either experiential or contextual intelligence.
B) An individual who scores high on experiential or contextual intelligence may be equally as intelligent as someone who scores high in componential intelligence.
C) Society needs individuals with all three forms of intelligence.
D) It is time we should be assessing experiential and contextual intelligence as much as we test componential intelligence.

A) Individuals with high componential intelligence are more intelligent than individuals with either experiential or contextual intelligence.

Sam took an IQ test in 4th grade and scored below average. Sam’s middle school is administering the test again. This time, Sam’s score is likely to be:
A) below average.
B) average.
C) above average.
D) there’s no way to predict

A) below average.

Adolescents who score higher than their peers on an IQ test will probably:
A) score lower than their peers on their next IQ test.
B) continue to score higher than their peers on future IQ tests.
C) score the same as their peers on their next IQ test.
D) cannot make a prediction based on the instability of intelligence.

B) continue to score higher than their peers on future IQ tests.

All of the following are themes that have emerged from the research findings of studies that investigate different aspects of social cognition during adolescence except:
A) as individuals move into and through adolescence they become better able to step outside themselves and see things from other vantage points
B) adolescents are better able to see that the social rules we follow are not absolute and are therefore subject to debate and questioning
C) with age, adolescents develop a more differentiated, more nuanced understanding of social norms
D) with age, all adolescents increasingly reject the authority of adults by challenging and dismissing the morals established by their parents.

D) with age, all adolescents increasingly reject the authority of adults by challenging and dismissing the morals established by their parents.

According to research on behavioral decision theory, adolescents often decide to engage in behavior that seems risky to adults because adolescents:
A) cannot consider as many consequences for their actions as do adults.
B) have thinking processes that are still predominantly preoperational.
C) place a different value on the possible consequences than do adults.
D) wish to assert their independence from adults in every possible way.

C) place a different value on the possible consequences than do adults.

What emotional characteristic makes an individual more likely to engage in risky behaviors?
A) depression
B) moodiness
C) sensation-seeking
D) anxiety

C) sensation-seeking

Compared to childhood, reward-seeking and sensation seeking during adolescence:
A) are equally as high during childhood and adolescence.
B) are lower during adolescence than childhood
C) are caused by biological forces during adolescence while it is typically caused by environmental forces in childhood.
D) are higher during adolescence than childhood.

D) are higher during adolescence than childhood.

According to the textbook, a good deal of adolescents’ risk taking takes place in contexts in which:
A) they are unsupervised by adults and exposed to peer pressure.
B) older, opposite sex peers are present.
C) they are in a new, exciting environment.
D) there are at least 3 peers present.

A) they are unsupervised by adults and exposed to peer pressure.

According to the textbook, the main contributor to the increased rate of automobile accidents among teenagers is:
A) driving under the influence
B) driving with other teenagers in the car
C) texting while driving
D) talking on the phone, especially having an emotional conversation.

B) driving with other teenagers in the car

social redefinition

the process through which an individual positions or status is redefined by society -where age boundaries are drawn -recognize like adult less explicit in US

age of majority

the designated age at which an individual is recognized like an adult

Elongation of adolescence

-adolescence longer – puberty starts sooner

Adolescence as a ?Social Invention

Adolescence not distict from childhood or adulthood not my cogitive or biological changes – adolescence is only a period where society draws lines – roots industrial rev.

teenager

term popularized 50 years ago -young ppl it is more connoted and light hearted def then adolescence

youth

refers to indiv. ages 18-22 use to refer ages 18-24

Emerging Adulthood

– caught between adolescence and adulthood – exploring identity work, relatationship.job etc

status of offence

a violation of the law that pertain to minor but no adults

juvenile justice system
vs
criminal justice system

separate system for juvenile crime handle adults crimes

Drawing legal Boundaries Adolescents defendants

inconsistency in adolescent legal status

Process of Social redef.
in America

15-16 ( can drive work, quit school) 18 vote,selective services etc 21 by alcohol

cohort group

group of individuals born during the same historical era ex. graduating class, quincenera celebration frat/sorit.

Right of Passage

ceremony – symbolic sparation of parents -separation of sexes passing of cultural and historical info

continuous transitions

passage into adulthood in which adults roles and statuses are entered in gradually – assume role bit by bit

discontinuous transitions

passages into adulthood adruptly — no training more adrupt – little preparation for roles as worker,parents,citizen -required to assume role when adult status reached

Contemporary society

-no formal ceremonies change into adult hood -no clear indication of responsibilities and privileges – more emphasis on self reliance – fewer gender type roles -adults prepared for adult hood observaation and hands on – more traditional

Baby boom generation

after world war 2 infants born extremly large – adult hood came faster – now more prolonged process

Special Transitional Problems of Poor and Minority Youth
Association of Americanization
possible factors

Americanization – associated w/ worse outcomes compared to immigrants -possible factors poverty discrimination

Effects of poverty

negative effect on school achievement

What Can Be Done to Ease the Transition to Adult Work?

Restructure secondary education Expand work and volunteering opportunities Improve the quality of community life for adolescents and their parents Expand opportunities in the workplace to make high school a "bridge" to adulthood Encourage adolescents to spend time in voluntary, nonmilitary service activities Facilitate mentoring programs for at-risk adolescents

Neighborhoods

– norms of adolescence ‘ – variations of interpersonal relationships – access to resources – hard to study influence of adolescence to neighborhood

poor families in good communities

More discrimination Less access to resources Feel more disadvantaged Parents in poor areas are more vigilant

Is There Emotional Distance Between Teens and Parents?

very little emotional distance b/tw adolescents – most teens feel feel close respect parent judgement love parents respect parents as individuals – most teens have similar core beliefs as parent religion education etc – differences come in style music actitvitie

Changes in family relationship The parents
Parents

increase concern about physical attractiveness, sexual appeal – midlife crisis – possibilities for change limited –

Against Stereotype

adolescents rarely rebel – accept parents rules and moral values – less incline to accept parents rule in personal (what to wear to par

self-fulfilling prophesy

The idea that individuals behavior is influenced by other expectations

family system theory

perspective on family functioning that emphasizes interconnections among different family relationships – family relationships change most when family is going through change in circumstances

familism

an orientation toward life in which the need of ones family take precedence over need of individual

generational dissonance

divergence of views between adolescents and parents that is common in families of immigrants parents and american born adolescents

Sex Differences in Family Relationships

– small differences between sons and daughters – similar closeness, types of rules and pattern of activities – sex of parent more important – spend more time with mom (more confortable fight more) – fathers rely on mom info(help with hw)

Authoritative

– warm but firm and fair – high demanding high responsiveness

Authoritarian

– place high values on obedience and conformity – high demand – low responsiveness

Indulgent

– behave in an accepting manner, somewhat passive -high responsiveness -low demand – mainly concerned with child happiness

Indifferent

minimize time and energy to devote to child low responsiveness low demand

Ethnic Differences in Parenting Styles

Authoritative less prevalent in black, asian and hispanic families than among white families – demanding and controlling parents more prevalent among minorities than among white – adverse effects white adolescents greater – may carry benifits to ethnic minorites in dangerious nieghborhoods

Behavioral genetics

study of how genetics influences on behavior

Autonomy and Attachment in the Family
How doe Autonomy affect adolescents

adolecents who are permitted to assert their own opinion w/in family context have – higher self esteems more mature way of coping abilities – adolescents whose autonomy is squelched -high risk of developing feelings of depression low self esteem behavior problems

Sibling Relationships
how is the relationship
what affects it and how does it affect other relationships

– sibling conflict increases -over course of adolescent sibling relationships bome more equal -more distant -less emotional intense – quality of sibling relationship is affected by parent and child relationship – also affects relationship with peers

Behavioral Genetics: Influences on Development

interaction between genes and environment

Shared environmental influences

nongenetic environmental influence that make individual living in same family similar

Nonshared environmental influences

the non genetic influences in individual indiff from ppl they live with

How do genes and environment correlate

genes may shape tendencies but environment determines whether they will occur

Why are siblings different

diffrent experiences -treated diff by parent – perceive similar experiences in diff ways

Siblings treated well shows

lead sibling geting along less sibling rivalry

Sibling deidentification

trying to be diff form other sibs. to diminish feelings of comensation

The Changing Family: Divorce
Effects of divorce

-small effect – quality relationship with adult in teens life more important -process of divorce matters most -exposure of marital conflict and disorganize parenting

long term effects of divorce

sleeper effects most common in women – higher level of educational and behavioral problems in boys more immediate problems and younger children

Ethnic statistics for divorce

black teens most likly to be form divorce parents

Which of the following is not one of the areas of fundamental change in adolescence?
A) biological
B) social
C) conceptual
D) cognitive

C) conceptual

The universal process through which an individual’s position or status is changed by society is called:
A) extrusion.
B) social redefinition.
C) social specification.
D) self-image stability.

B) social redefinition.

Notable contributing factors to the elongation of adolescence compared to previous eras include all except which of the following:
A) earlier onset of puberty.
B) later entry into adult work roles.
C) later entry into adult family roles.
D) later development of emotional maturity.

D) later development of emotional maturity.

Jeffrey Arnett, the psychologist who created the term "emerging adulthood", believes that the developmental period between adolescence and adulthood (emerging adulthood):
A) exists in all cultures.
B) exists in almost every culture.
C) exists in very few cultures.
D) exists wherever there is a large discrepancy between the rich and the poor.

C) exists in very few cultures.

Dr. Jones argues that adolescence is primarily a social invention rather than a biological or cognitive phenomenon. Her view that the broader environment influences our conception of adolescence is most in line with the:
A) Piagetian perspective.
B) psychometric perspective.
C) inventionist perspective.
D) contextual perspective.

C) inventionist perspective.

Among those who study adolescence, an inventionist is one who:
A) develops new products aimed predominantly at the adolescent population.
B) argues that adolescence as a period in the life cycle is mainly a social invention.
C) believes that many of the problems in adolescence are merely invented by the popular press.
D) believes that adolescents need to be kept away from the labor force for their own safety.

B) argues that adolescence as a period in the life cycle is mainly a social invention.

Adolescence was not considered a distinct transitional period until:
A) the publication of Seventeen magazine.
B) the creation of child labor laws.
C) the industrial revolution.
D) It has always been recognized as a distinct part of development.

C) the industrial revolution.

The term "adolescent" became widely used at what time?
A) since the 15th century
B) since the 18th century
C) since the 19th century
D) during the 20th century

C) since the 19th century

The status of adolescents as full-time students arose as a result of:
A) the Industrial Revolution.
B) increases in scientific knowledge.
C) political changes resulting from the Civil War.
D) the advent of technical careers.

A) the Industrial Revolution.

Which of the following contributed to the invention of the "teenager"?
A) industrialization
B) economic freedom
C) higher education
D) student activism

B) economic freedom

Which of the following statements is true about Arnett’s concept of emerging adulthood?
A) it is seen more commonly among politically conservative youth
B) not all people in their mid-20s fit the profile
C) it is positively associated with economic pressures to support a family
D) it exists in all cultures

Answer: B

B) not all people in their mid-20s fit the profile

Which of the following did not contribute to the redefinition of the term "youth"?
A) increased materialism among college students
B) a growing college population
C) a rise in student activism
D) changes in attitudes and values among college students

A) increased materialism among college students

All of the following are true regarding the legal boundary between childhood and adulthood except:
A) the legal boundary between childhood and adulthood is very clear and consistent
B) there are many inconsistencies in the legal boundary between childhood and adulthood
C) once an adolescent is designated as an adult, she or he is also subject to a new set of laws and will be treated differently
D) in some instances, attaining adult status brings with it more lenient treatment under the law, whereas in others, it may be associated with harsher treatment.

A) the legal boundary between childhood and adulthood is very clear and consistent

Research described in the text indicates all of the following except:
A) juveniles are less likely than adults to understand their rights when being questioned by the police
B) juvenile are more likely than adults to confess to a crime than remain silent
C) juveniles are less likely than adults to discuss disagreements with their attorneys
D) nearly all juveniles under 15 years old are competent to stand trial in a criminal proceeding

D) nearly all juveniles under 15 years old are competent to stand trial in a criminal proceeding

Recent research on psychological well-being in emerging adulthood suggests:
A) it is a time of positive and improving mental health for most people.
B) it is a time of increasing stress caused by financial instability.
C) it is a time of decreasing mental health for most people.
D) no research has yet examined this question with emerging adults.

A) it is a time of positive and improving mental health for most people.

Charles feels older than most of the other kids in his grade. He is more likely to engage in all of the following activities except:
A) spending more time with opposite-sex peers.
B) greater achievement in school.
C) feel more autonomous.
D) engage in problem behavior.

B) greater achievement in school.

Among American adolescents, the most frequently mentioned criterion for being an adult is:
A) getting married.
B) moving in with a prospective mate.
C) accepting responsibility for oneself.
D) being able to support oneself financially.

C) accepting responsibility for oneself.

Since Mark was 5 years old, he has been helping his father maintain the family farm. Now, 30 years later, Mark owns the farm and is teaching his own son how to manage it. Based on your knowledge about the continuity of adolescence, how would you describe Mark’s transition?
A) attenuated
B) longitudinal
C) discontinuous
D) continuous

D) continuous

The transition into adulthood 50 years ago was characterized by _____ prior preparation for family roles and _____ prior preparation for work roles.
A) more; less
B) more; more
C) less; more
D) less; less

B) more; more

Black, Hispanic, and American Indian youth have more trouble negotiating the transition into adulthood than do their counterparts of which race(s)?
A) White youth only
B) Asian youth only
C) White and Asian youth
D) none of the above is the correct answer

C) White and Asian youth

Which of the following is not associated with transition difficulties in adolescence?
A) spending a lot of time with peers
B) being a member of a minority group
C) living in poverty
D) the absence of affluent neighbors

A) spending a lot of time with peers

Tamika and Theresa both live in single-parent households and survive on welfare. Tamika, however, lives in a better neighborhood than Theresa. According to community researchers, who is more likely to drop out of school or become pregnant?
A) Tamika
B) Theresa
C) both Tamika and Theresa have an equal chance
D) unable to determine

B) Theresa

Jim and Stacey are the parents of two preteen girls. Throughout the girls’ childhood, the family has enjoyed fairly harmonious relationships. The likelihood that they will experience serious problems as the girls go through adolescence is:
A) highly likely.
B) average.
C) not likely.
D) not easily predicted.

C) not likely.

Which of the following research findings best describes the phenomenon known as generational dissonance:
A) Recent studies of Mexican-American families have found that stress and conflict are higher in Latino families in which adolescents are relatively more acculturated than parents.
B) One recent study of Black families found that teenagers rated their mother’s behavior far more negatively than did either the mother or the researcher.
C) Several researchers have demonstrated that family relationships change during puberty, with bickering between adolescents and their parents increasing and closeness between adolescents and their parents diminishing.
D) Research suggests that the distancing that takes place between parents and teenagers in early and middle adolescence is temporary.

A) Recent studies of Mexican-American families have found that stress and conflict are higher in Latino families in which adolescents are relatively more acculturated than parents.

After midlife, parents are more likely to think about the future in terms of:
A) how much time they have been alive.
B) how much time their children have been alive.
C) how much time until their children die.
D) how much time they have left to live themselves.

D) how much time they have left to live themselves.

Max tells his friends that his mother is a "real marshmallow" who does whatever he wants and who never enforces the rules she tries to set. If Max’s statement is true, his mother is best characterized as:
A) authoritarian.
B) nonresponsive.
C) indulgent.
D) demanding.

C) indulgent.

Don’s teacher is concerned about him because he is passive and indifferent to new experiences, and shows little intellectual curiosity. He also shows signs of developing low self-esteem. Based on Baumrind’s classification of parenting styles, the best guess is that Don’s parents are:
A) authoritative.
B) authoritarian.
C) indulgent.
D) indifferent.

B) authoritarian.

Optimal development during adolescence appears to be facilitated by the ________ style of parenting.
A) authoritative
B) authoritarian
C) indulgent
D) neglectful

A) authoritative

Ethnic differences in parenting practices suggest that:
A) authoritative parenting is most likely to be used by White and Asian families.
B) ethnic minority families are less likely than White families to use an authoritative parenting style because they are less educated than White parents.
C) even though authoritative parenting is less commonly used by ethnic minority families, its effects on adolescent development are beneficial in all ethnic groups.
D) authoritarian parenting has equally negative effects on adolescent development across all ethnic groups.

C) even though authoritative parenting is less commonly used by ethnic minority families, its effects on adolescent development are beneficial in all ethnic groups.

Which of the following statements is most true of minority families and parenting styles?
A) because ethnic minorities are more likely to live in dangerous areas, authoritarian parenting may actually be beneficial for these adolescents
B) the distinction between authoritative parenting’s positive outcomes for adolescents and authoritarian parenting’s negative outcomes holds true across all cultures and ethnic groups
C) authoritarian parenting is most prevalent among White middle-class families
D) authoritarian parenting styles are associated with an even greater number of adverse effects for ethnic minority adolescents, relative to their White adolescent counterparts

A) because ethnic minorities are more likely to live in dangerous areas, authoritarian parenting may actually be beneficial for these adolescents

Over the course of adolescence, relationships among siblings become more egalitarian but _______distant and _______emotionally intense.
A) more; less
B) less; more
C) more; more
D) less; less

A) more; less

Which of the following statements concerning sibling relationships is false?
A) The quality of sibling relationships affects adolescents’ peer relationships.
B) The quality of sibling relationships affects the adolescents’ general adjustment.
C) Positive sibling relationships contribute to an adolescent’s school competence and sociability.
D) Siblings are likely to be closer in families under economic stress than in affluent families.

D) Siblings are likely to be closer in families under economic stress than in affluent families.

Which of the following is least likely to be affected by genetic factors?
A) self-perception of scholastic competence
B) aggression and antisocial behavior
C) risk for suicide and depression
D) intelligence

A) self-perception of scholastic competence

Amalia is most likely to be adversely affected by her parents’ divorce if:
A) the conflict between her parents is covert.
B) she blames herself for her parents’ problems.
C) her parents attempt to keep their relationship with her positive.
D) her parents keep her out of their arguments.

B) she blames herself for her parents’ problems.

Although young children may seem unaffected by a divorce at the time, problems may emerge when they are adolescents. This delayed effect is called:
A) a sleeper effect.
B) a deferred effect.
C) sluggish adjustment.
D) a generational tendency.

A) a sleeper effect.

Which of the following statements about stepfamilies is false?
A) Adolescents have an easier time adjusting to a stepfather if they have a good relationship with their biological father.
B) Younger adolescents have a harder time adjusting to stepfamilies than older adolescents.
C) Adolescents growing up in stepfamilies have more problems than adolescents growing up in single-parent families.
D) Girls show more difficulty in stepfamilies than boys.

B) Younger adolescents have a harder time adjusting to stepfamilies than older adolescents.

Jesse has just married a woman who has two adolescents. These children will adjust best if Jesse establishes all of the following types of discipline, except:
A) consistent.
B) supportive.
C) controlling.
D) authoritative.

C) controlling.

The term given in the text that describes siblings who are deliberately trying to be different from each other is:
A) differential treatment.
B) sibling deidentification.
C) sibling rivalry.
D) sibling discrepancy

B) sibling deidentification.

Sarah is an excellent writer, but her younger sister Jane has always hated writing classes and instead has focused on developing gymnastic abilities. Sarah readily expresses disdain for gymnastics, so the girls feel that they are different enough to avoid direct competition. One explanation for this type of sibling behavior is called:
A) family decision making.
B) family contextual transformations.
C) sibling rivalry.
D) sibling deidentification.

D) sibling deidentification.

Denise’s parents have both been laid off from work and are unable to pay the bills. Denise’s parents are likely to do all of the following, except:
A) become less nurturing toward Denise.
B) begin using harsher and more inconsistent discipline than they had in the past.
C) engage in drug and alcohol abuse.
D) feel more depressed.

C) engage in drug and alcohol abuse.

Luis’s family has lived below the poverty level his entire life. Research suggests that Luis is likely to experience all of the following, except:
A) greater exposure than other adolescents to violence.
B) greater family cohesiveness than other adolescents his age.
C) greater alienation from school than other adolescents his age.
D) higher levels of stress than other adolescents his age.

B) greater family cohesiveness than other adolescents his age.