Sociology

Sociology

the scientific study of social behavior and human groups; emphasizes the influence groups have on people’s behavior and attitudes and the ways in which people shape society

Sociological imagination

an awareness of the relationship btwn an individual and the wider society. It’s based on the ability to view our own society as an outsider might, rather than from the perspective of our limited experiences of cultural biases

Social sciences

The study of the social features of humans and the ways in which they interact and change

Knowledge that relies on common sense is not always reliable. Sociologists must test and analyze each piece of information they use.

…

Sociologists employ THEORIES to examine relationships between observations or data that may seem completely unrelated

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Emile Durkheim

– Pioneered work on suicide – father of modern sociology – emphasized the significance of social order – Anomie – loss of direction – functionalist • Emile Durkheim – concerned not with the personalities of individual suicidal victims, but how suicide rates varied from country to country o Focused on social factors, such as the cohesiveness or lack of cohesiveness of religious, social, and occupational groups o Insisted that behavior must be understood within a larger social context, not just an individualistic terms o Another of his main interests was the consequences of work in modern societies Growing division of labor in industrial societies, as workers become more specialized in their tasks, led to what he called "anomie" Anomie – refers to the loss of direction felt in a society when social control of individual behavior has become ineffective • often occurs during a time of profound social change, when people have lost their sense of purpose or direction • in a period of anomie, people are so confused and unable to cope with the new social environment that they may resort to suicide o Concerned about the dangers that alienation, loneliness and isolation might pose for social industrial societies o Believed sociology should provide direction for social change o Advocated the creation of new social groups – mediatiors between the individual’s family and the state – that would provide a sense of belonging for members of huge, impersonal societies

Auguste Comte

– french • Auguste Comte -believed that a theoretical science of society and a systematic investigation of behavior were needed to improve society o Came up with the term sociology to apply to the science of human behavior

Harriet Martineau

• Harriet Martineau – scholars learned of Comte’s work largely through translations by English by this girl o Offered insightful observations of the customs and social practices of both her native Britain and the US o Her book Society in America (1837/1962) examined religion, politics, child rearing, and immigration in America; gave special attention to social class distinctions and to such factors as gender and race o Also wrote the first book on sociological methods o Writings emphasized the impact that the economy, law, trade, health, and population could have on social problems o Spoke out in favor of the rights of women, the emancipation of slaves, and religious tolerance o "intellectuals and scholars should not simply offer observations of social conditions; they should act on their convictions in a manner that will benefit society"

Herbert Spencer

• Herbert Spencer – unlike Martineau, did not feel compelled to correct or improve society; instead, he hoped to understand it better o Using Charles Darwin’s study On the Origin of Species, Spencer applied the concept of evolution of the species to societies in order to explain how they change, or evolve, over time o Adapted view of the "survival of the fittest" by arguing that it’s "natural" that some people are rich and others are poor o Suggested that since societies are bound to change eventually, one doesn’t need to be highly critical of present social arrangements or work actively for social change

Max Weber

– taught the need for insight in intellectual work • Max Weber o Taught students that they should employ verstehen (fair-shtay-en) – "understanding" or "insight" in their intellectual work o Pointed out that we cannot analyze our social behavior by the same type of objective criteria we use to measure weight or temperature o To fully comprehend behavior, we must learn the subjective meanings people attach to their actions – how they themselves view and explain their behavior o Came up with a key conceptual tool: the ideal type – a construct or model for evaluating specific cases

Karl Marx

emphasized the importance of the economy and social conflict • Karl Marx o Was critical of existing institutions that a conventional academic career was impossible o Wrote The Communist Manifesto with Fredrich Engels, in which they argued that the masses of people with no resources other than their labor should unite to fight for overthrow of capitalist societies o According to Marx, society was divided between two classes that clashed in pursuit of their own interests o Believed that a system of economic, social, and political relationships maintained the power and dominance of the owners over the workers o Argued that the working class should overthrow the existing class system

W.E.B DuBois

advocated the usefulness of basic research in combating and fostering racial tolerance and justice • W.E.B DuBois o Believed that knowledge was essential in combating prejudice and achieving tolerance and justice o He contended that sociologists needed to draw on scientific principles to study social problems such as those experienced by Blacks in the US o Double consciousness – refers to the division of an individual’s identity into two or more social realities

Charles Horton Cooley

• Charles Horton Cooley – preferred to use the sociological perspective to look first at smaller units – intimate, face-to-face groups such as families, gangs, and friendship networks; saw these groups as the seedbeds of society, in the sense that they shape people’s ideals, beliefs, values, and social nature

Robert Merton

• Robert Merton – successfully combined theory and research o Macrosociology – concentrates on large-scale phenomena or entire civilizations Ex: Durkheim’s cross-cultural study of suicide o Microsociology – stresses the study of small groups, often through experimental means Ex: how divorced men and women disengage from significant social roles and how a teacher’s expectations can affect a student’s academic performance

Pierre Bourdieu

• Pierre Bourdieu – wrote about how capital in its many forms sustains individuals and families from one generation to the next o Capital included not just material goods, but cultural and social assets o Cultural capital – noneconomic goods, such as family background and education, which are reflected in a knowledge of language and the arts; not necessarily book knowledge, more of the kind of education that is valued by the socially elite o Social capital – the collective benefit of social netowrks, which are built on reciprocal trust

Macrosociology

concentrates on large-scale phenomena or entire civilizations

Microsociology

stresses the study of small groups

Functionalist perspective

emphasizes the way in which the parts of a society are structured to maintain its stability

Conflict perspective

assumes that social behavior is best understood in terms of conflict or tension between competing groups best understood in terms of tension btwn groups over power or the allocation of resources, including housing, money, access to services, and political representation

Feminist perspective

• Feminist perspective – sees inequity in gender as central to all behavior and organization; focuses clearly on one aspect of inequality o Tend to focus on the macro level – often allied with the conflict perspective

interactionist perspective

concerned primparily with fundamental or everyday forms of interaction, including symbols and other types of nonverbal communication Interactionist perspective – generalize about everyday forms of social interaction in order to explain society as a whole o Sociological framework in which human beings are viewed as living in a world of meaningful objects o See symbols as an important part of human communication o Nonverbal communication – which can include many gestures, facial expressions and postures

applied and clinical sociology

apply the discipline of sociology to the solution of practical problems in human behavior and organizations. in contrast, basic sociology is sociological inquiry that seeks only a deeper knowledge of the fundamental aspects of social phenomena

Anomie

the loss of direction felt in a society when social control of individual behavior has become ineffective

Applied sociology

the use of the discipline of sociology with the specific intent of yielding practical applications for human behavior and organizations

Basic sociology

sociological inquiry conducted with the objective of gaining a more profound knowledge of the fundamental aspects of social phenomena

cultural capital

noneconomic goods, such as family background and education which are reflected in a knowledge of language and the arts

double consciousness

the division of an individuals identity into two or more social realities

Dramaturgical approach

Erving Goffman = people are seen as theatrical performers; compares everyday life to the setting of the theater and stage

Ideal type

a construct or model for evaluating specific cases

interactionist perspective

a sociological approach that generalizes about everyday forms of social interaction in order to explain society as a whole

Latent function

an unconscious or unintended function that may reflect hidden purposes

macrosociology

sociological investigation that concentrates on large-scale phenomena or entire civilizations

manifest function

an open, stated, and conscious function

microsociology

sociological investigation that stresses the study of small groups, often through experimental means

sociologlical imagination

an awareness of the relationship btwn an individual and the wider society, both today and in the past

Verstehten

"understanding"/"insight" – used to stress the need for sociologists to take into account the subjective meanings people attach to their actions

Sociology is

the systematic study of social behavior and human groups

Which thinker introduced the concept of the sociological imagination?

Max Weber

Emile Durkheim’s research on suicide suggested that

Suicide rates seemed to be higher in times of peace than in times of war and revolution

Max Weber taught his students that they should employ which of the following in their intellectual work?

verstehen = "understanding"/"insight" – used to stress the need for sociologists to take into account the subjective meanings people attach to their actions

robert merton’s contributions to sociology include

successfully combining theory and research, producing a theory that is one of the most frequently cited explanations of deviant behavior, an attempt to bring macro-level and micro-level analyses together

what sociologist made a major contribution to society through his in-depth studies of urban life, including both Blacks and Whites?

W.E.B DuBois

in the late 19th century, before the term feminist view was even coined, the ideas behind this major theoretical approach appeared in the writings of

Ida Wells-Barnett

thinking of society as a living organism in which each part of the organism contributes to its survival is a reflection of which theoretical perspective?

the functionalist perspective

karl marx’s view of the struggle btwn social classes inspired the contemporary

conflict perspective

erving goffman’s dramaturgical approach, which postulates that people present certain aspect of their personalities while obscuring other aspects, is a derivative of what major theoretical perspective

the interactionist perspective

while the findings of sociologists may at times seem like common sense, they differ because they rest on _________ analysis of facts

SYSTEMATIC

within sociology a __________ is a set of statements that seeks to explain problems, actions or behavior

THEORY

in ________’s hierarchy of the sciences, sociology was the "queen" and its practitioners were "scientist priests"

August Comte

in Society in America, __________________ examined religion, politics, child rearing and immigration in the young nation

Harriet Martineau

____________ adapted charles darwin’s evolutionary view of the "survival of the fittest" by arguing that it is "natural" that some people are rich while others are poor

herbert spencer

max weber coined the term _____ in referring to a construct or model that serves as a measuring rod against which actual cases can be evaluated

ideal type

___, cofounded the famous chicago settlement house called the Hull House and tried to establish a juvenile court system

Jane Addams

the university’s role in certifying acaademic competence and excellence is an example of

MANIFEST FUNCTION

the ______ draws on the work of karl marx and fred engels in that it often views wome’s subordination as inherent in captialist societies

feminist view

Which sociologist introduced the concept of the sociological imagination? (on quiz)

C. WRIGHT MILLS

Durkheim’s research suggested that (on quiz)

there seemed to be higher rates of suicide in times of peace than in times of war and revolution.

In this sociologist’s hierarchy of sciences, sociology was the "queen" and its practitioners "scientist-priests." (on quiz)

Auguste Comte

Which sociologist introduced the concept of anomie to the discipline? (on quiz)

Emile Durkheim

Anomie refers to (OQ)

the loss of direction felt in a society when social control of individual behavior has become ineffective.

Weber taught his students that they should employ what in their intellectual work?
(OQ)

Verstehen

Which sociological perspective holds that if an aspect of social life does not contribute to a society’s stability or survival if it does not serve some identifiably useful function or promote value consensus among members of society?
(OQ)

functionalist perspective

One function that a university serves is to hold down unemployment. This is an example of what kind of function?
(OQ)

latent function

Which sociological perspective assumes that social behavior is best understood in terms of tension between competing groups?
(OQ)

conflict perspective

Which perspective has begun to study a new form of commuter behavior called "slugging"? OQ

interactionist perspective

Which theoretical perspective would examine sports on the micro level by focusing on how day-to-day social behavior is shaped by the distinctive norms, values, and demands of the world of sports?
OQ

interactionist perspective

Which sociologist below tried to establish a juvenile court system?
OQ

Jane Addams

Which sociologist below made a major contribution to society through his in-depth studies of urban life, both black and white?
OQ

W.E.B DuBois

Within sociology, a/an __________ is a set of statements that seeks to explain problems, actions, or behavior.
OQ

theory

According to the text, Herbert Spencer
OQ

applied the concept of evolution of the species to societies.

The term __________ refers to a construct or model for evaluating specific cases.
OQ

ideal type

__________ and Friedrich Engels prepared a platform called The Communist Manifesto, in which they argued that the masses of people who have no resources other than their labor (the proletariat) should unite to fight for the overthrow of capitalist societies.
OQ

Karl Marx

Thinking of society as a living organism in which each part of the organism contributes to its survival is a reflection of which theoretical perspective?
OQ

functionalist

__________ functions of institutions are open, stated, and conscious.
OQ

Manifest

Latent functions are
OQ

unconscious/unintended

The __________ perspective generalizes about everyday forms of social interaction in order to explain society as a whole.
OQ

interactionist

In the nineteenth century, before the term feminist perspective could even be coined, the ideas behind this major theoretical approach appeared in the writings of
OQ

Ida Wells-Barnett

According to the subsection Research Today: Looking at the Gulf Coast Oil Spill from Four Sociological Perspectives, which of the major theoretical perspectives would note, is a form of big business, in which profits are more important than workers’ health and safety?
OQ

Conflict

Erving Goffman’s dramaturgical approach, which postulates that people present certain aspects of their personalities while obscuring other qualities, is a type of which major theoretical perspective?
OQ

interactionist

Sociology is an awareness of the relationship between an individual and the wider society.
OQ

FALSE

Social science is the study of the social features of humans and the ways in which they interact and change.

TRUE

Émile Durkheim developed a highly original theory about the relationship between homicide and social factors.

FALSE

Scholars were able to learn of Auguste Comte’s works largely through translations by the English sociologist Ida Wells-Barnett.

FALSE

Sociology owes credit to Max Weber for a key conceptual tool called "anomie."

FALSE

In Karl Marx’s analysis, society was fundamentally divided between classes that clash in pursuit of their own class interests.

TRUE

Charles Horton Cooley’s primary interest was the consequences of work in modern societies.

FALSE

Sociologist Robert Merton made an important contribution to the discipline of sociology by arguing that the working class needed to overthrow the existing class system.

FALSE

Microsociology concentrates on large-scale phenomena or entire civilizations.

FALSE

The functionalist perspective emphasizes the way in which parts of a society are structured to maintain its stability.

TRUE

The term "latent function" refers to an element or process of society that may actually disrupt a social system or lead to a decrease in stability.

FALSE

Conflict theorists are interested in how society’s institutions may help to maintain the privileges of some groups and keep others in a subservient position.

TRUE

Charles Horton Cooley is widely regarded as the founder of the interactionist perspective.

FALSE

Ida Wells-Barnett explored what it meant to be female and Black living in the United States.

TRUE

Erving Goffman popularized a particular type of interactionist method known as Verstehen.

FALSE

Steps to the scientific method

1. defining the problem 2. reviewing the literature 3. formulating the hypothesis 4. collecting and analyzing the data 5. developing the conclusion

whenever researchers wish to study abstract concepts, such as intelligence or prejudice, they must develop workable OPERATIONAL DEFINITIONS

an explanation of an abstract concept that is specific enough to allow a researcher to assess the concept

a HYPOTHESIS states a possible relationship btwn two or more variables

hypothesis – a speculative statement about the relationship btwn two or more variables

by using a SAMPLE, sociologists avoid having to test everyone in a population

sample – a selection from a larger population that is statistically representative of that population

research results must possess both VALIDITY and RELIABILITY

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devising a plan for collecting data – called a RESEARCH DESIGN

research design – a detailed plan or method for obtaining data scentifically

the two principle forms of survey research are the

interview and questionnaire

ethnography

allows sociologists to study certain behaviors and communities taht cannot be investigated through other research methods

The Code of Ethics

calls for objectivity and integrity in research the standards of acceptable behavior developed by and for members of a profession

causal logic

the relationship btwn a condition or variable and a particular consequence, with one leading to the other

independent variable

the variable in a causal relationship that causes or influences a change in another variable

dependent variable

the variable in a causal relationship that is subject to the influence of another variable

control variable

a factor that is held constant to test the relative impact of an independent variable

random sample

a sample for which every member of an entire population has the same chance of being selected

quantitative research

research that collects and reports data primarily in numberical form

qualitative research

research that relies on what is seen in field or naturalistic settings more than on statistical data

survey

a study, in a form of an interview or questionnaire that provides researchers with infnormation about how people think and act

observation

technique in which an investigator collects information through direct participation by closely watching a group or community

hawthorne effect

the unintended influence that observers of experiments can have on their subjects

secondary analysis

a variety of research techniques that make use of previously collected and public accessible information and data

content analysis

the systematic coding and objective recording of data, guided by some rationale

value neutrality

max weber’s term for objectivity of sociologists in the interpretation of data

operational definition

an explanation of an abstract concept that is specific enough to allow a researcher to assess the concept

correlation

a relationship btwn two variables in which a change in one coincides with a change in the other

causality

the relationship btwn a condition or variable and a particular consequence with one leading to the other

the first step in any sociological research project is to

define the problem

an explanation of an abstract concept that is specific enough to allow a researcher to measure the concept is an

correlation variable

the variable hypothesized to cause or influence another is called the

independent variable

a correlation exists when

a change in one variable coincides with a change in another variable

though which type of research technique does a sociologist ensure that data are statistically representative of the population being studied

sampling

in order to obtain a random sample, a researcher might

study the attitudes of registered democratic voters by choosing every 10th name found on a city’s list of registered democrats

a researcher can obtain a higher response rate by using which type of survey

an interview

when sociologists want to study a possible cause and effect relationship, they may engage in what kind of research technique

experiment

emile durkheim statistical analysis of suicide was an expample of what kind of research technique

secondary analysis

unlike the typical citizen, the sociologist has a commitment to use the _____ method in studying society

scentific

A ___ is a speculative statement about the statement about the relationship btwn two or more factors known as variables

hypothesis

VALIDITY refers to the degree to which a measure or scale truly reflects the phenomenon under study

…

In order to obtain data scientifically, researchers need to select a research DESIGN

…

If scientists were testing a new type of toothpaste in an experimental setting, they would administer the toothpaste to an EXPERIMENTAL group, not a CONTROL group

…

the term HAWTHORNE EFFECT refers to the unintended influence that observers of the experiments can have on their subjects

…

Using census data in a way unintended by its initial collectors would be an example of SECONDARY ANALYSIS

…

Using CONTENT ANALYSIS researchers conducted a study of gender-stereotyped behavior in children’s coloring books

…

The American Sociological Association’s Code of ETHICS requires sociologists to maintain objectivity and integrity and to preserve the
confidentiality of their subjects.

…

As part of their commitment to VALUE neutrality, investigators have an ethical obligation to accept research findings even when the
data run counter to their personal views or to widely accepted beliefs.

…

An explanation of an abstract concept that is specific enough to allow a researcher to measure the concept is
oq

an operational definition

The variable hypothesized to cause or influence another is called
oq

the independent variable

Which kind of sample is most frequently used by social scientists?
oq

a random sample

Which type of variable is a factor held constant to test the relative impact of the independent variable? oq

a control variable

A study generally in the form of an interview or questionnaire that provides researchers with information about how people think and act is known as what?
oq

a survey

__________ refers to the study of an entire social setting through extended systematic observation.
oq

ethnographic research

Using __________, Erving Goffman conducted a pioneering exploration of how advertisements portray women.
oq

content analysis

When sociologists want to study a possible cause-and-effect relationship, they may engage in what kind of research technique? oq

experimental research

Durkheim’s statistical analysis of suicide was an example of what kind of research technique?
oq

secondary analysis

Max Weber argued that sociologists must practice what in their research?
oq

value neutrality

What is one of the most complicating factors in researching human sexuality that is discussed in the text?
oq

The government agencies are reluctant to provide funding for such research.

In The Death of White Sociology, Joyce Ladner focused on what issue?
oq

the treatment of the lives of African Americans as a social problem

Which of the following statements is false?
oq

Sociological studies always generate data that supports the original hypothesis.

In the 1930s, William F. Whyte moved into a low-income Italian neighborhood in Boston. For nearly four years, he was a member of the social circle of "corner boys" that he describes in Street Corner Society. His goal was to gain greater insight into the community that these men had established. What type of research technique did Whyte use?
oq

participant observation

The systematic, organized series of steps that ensures maximum objectivity and consistency in researching a problem is termed the
oq

scientific method

A sociologist studying prejudice views the phenomenon in terms of a person’s unwillingness to hire or work with members of minority groups. This view illustrates an explanation of an abstract concept that is specific enough to allow a researcher to measure the concept and is known as a/an
oq

operational definition

A/an __________ is a speculative statement about the relationship between two or more factors known as variables.
oq

hypothesis

A measurable trait or characteristic that is subject to change under different conditions is referred to as a/an
oq

variable

A correlation exists when
oq

a change in one variable coincides with a change in another variable.

The degree to which a measure or scale truly reflects the phenomenon under study is termed
oq

validity

Which of the following is NOT a form of survey?
oq

observation

Which of these is NOT an arena where feminists are most likely to focus their ethnographic research?
oq

street corners

The term ___________ refers to the unintended influence that observers of experiments can have on their subjects.
oq

hawthorne effect

Your text explains that the controversy surrounding research on human sexual behavior raises the issue of
oq

value neutrality

A hypothesis is a speculative statement about the relationship between two or more factors known as variables.

TRUE

The variable hypothesized to cause or influence another is called the dependent variable.

FALSE

In a sample, every member of an entire population being studied has the same chance of being selected.

FALSE

The scientific method requires that research results be both valid and reliable. Reliability refers to the extent to which a measure produces consistent results.

TRUE

A research design is a systematic, organized series of steps that ensures maximum objectivity and consistency in researching a problem.

FALSE

Studies have shown that characteristics of the interviewer have little impact on survey data.

FALSE

Observation research is the most common form of quantitative research.

FALSE

Ethnography refers to efforts to describe an entire social setting through extended systematic fieldwork.

TRUE

Sociologists use the term "reliability" to refer to the unintended influence that observers of experiments can have on their subjects.

FALSE

When sociologists want to study a possible cause-and-effect relationship, they conduct participant observation research.

FALSE

Researchers conducting an experiment assign the subjects to one of two groups. These groups are called the dependent and independent groups.

F

Secondary analysis is the systematic coding and objective recording of data, guided by some rationale.

F

Sociologists have little reliable national data on patterns of sexual behavior in the United States.

T

The controversy surrounding research on human sexual behavior raises the issue of value neutrality.

T

A relationship between two variables whereby a change in one coincides with a change in the other is referred to as causality.

F