|
Which of the following is INCORRECTLY matched with its secreting organ? a) TRH – hypothalamus |
B |
|
A decrease in the level of thyroxine would increase the secretion of _______. a) neither TSH nor TRH |
D |
|
A hypophysectomized rat is missing its ______. a) pituitary gland |
A |
|
Thyroxine is a __________. a) hormone that works through a second-messenger system |
B |
|
Which of the following hormones is regulated by a positive feedback mechanism? a) oxytocin |
A |
|
Which rat(s) was euthyroid without any injections? a) the normal rat and the hypophysectomized rat |
C |
|
An abnormally high level of which of the following will result in goiter? a) thyroxine |
C |
|
Why did the TSH have NO effect on the BMR of the thyroidectomized rat? a) the metabolism of the rat is already too low |
D |
|
The injection of TSH resulted in goiter in ________. a) the hypophysectomized rat |
D |
|
Propylthiouracil injections resulted in goiter formation in _________. a) the normal rat |
A |
|
Glucose is stored in the human body as ________. a) glucagon |
C |
|
Which hormone stimulates the breakdown of polymerized glucose? a) glycogen |
C |
|
Glucose remains in the bloodstream as a result of ______. a) type 2 diabetes mellitus |
D |
|
Excess glucose can be found in the urine ________. a) when the transport maximum for reabsorption in the kidney tubules is exceeded, as a result of type 1 diabetes or as a result of type 2 diabetes |
A |
|
In this experiment, optical density is measured using a _________. a) thermocycler |
B |
|
Using this assay, glucose concentration is _______. a) directly proportional to optical density |
A |
|
Which of the patients tested was (were) in the diabetic range? a) patients 3 and 4 |
B |
|
Which of the patients tested was (were) in the borderline range for insulin-mediated glucose uptake? a) patients 2 and 3 |
E |
|
Peptide hormones include which of the following? a) estrogen |
D |
|
Which of the following is INCORRECTLY matched with one of its functions? a) FSH – stimulates ovarian follicle growth |
C |
|
Which of the following is INCORRECTLY matched with its primary secreting organ? a) estrogen – ovaries |
C |
|
Inhibiting osteoclast activity would prevent _______. a) osteoporosis |
D |
|
Replacement therapies for which two hormones were tested in this experiment? a) saline and calcitonin |
E |
|
Which of the following showed the greatest improvement in vertebral bone density for the rats? a) FSH |
B |
|
The baseline T score for the rats was indicate of ________. a) osteoporosis, because their ovaries were removed |
A |
|
Which of the following improved the vertebral bone density of the rats? a) FSH |
D |
|
The target cells for the hormone ACTH are located in the ________. a) posterior pituitary |
C |
|
Tropic hormones include which of the following? a) cortisol, ACTH, and CRH |
D |
|
Which of the following is NOT characterized by high levels of cortisol in the blood? a) Addison’s disease |
A |
|
Iatrogenic Cushing’s syndrome is _______. a) a result of treatment with glucocorticoid hormones |
D |
|
High levels of cortisol would normally provide negative feedback to the ________. a) anterior pituitary and the hypothalamus |
A |
|
Which patients would be diagnosed with primary hypercortisolism? a) patients 2 and 5 |
A |
|
Which patient would be diagnosed with secondary hypercortisolism? a) patient 1 |
E |
|
Which patient would be diagnosed with secondary adrenal insufficiency? a) patient 1 |
A |
|
Which two body systems coordinates and integrates the functions of different physiological systems? |
-endocrine system -nervous system |
|
The endocrine system plays a critical role in maintaining what? |
-homeostasis |
|
Hormones are secreted from where? |
-ductless endocrine glands |
|
endocrine glands |
-tissues that have an epithelial origin -secrete hormones into the ECF |
|
What carries hormones to their target cells? |
-blood |
|
Where can target cells be located? |
-very close to or very far from the source of the hormone |
|
Hormones bind to what and where? |
-bind to high-affinity receptors -located on the target cell’s surface, in its cytosol, or in its nucleus |
|
What is the range in the blood for hormone concentration? |
-10^-9 to 10^-12 molar |
|
A hormone-receptor complex can exert a biological action through what? |
-signal-transduction cascades and alteration of gene transcription at the target cell |
|
The physiological response to hormones can vary depending on what? |
-chemical nature of the hormone -receptor location in the target cell |
|
The chemical structure of the hormone is important in determining what? |
-how it will interact with target cells |
|
examples of fast-acting hormones |
-peptide -catecholamine |
|
Peptide and catecholamine attach to what and cause what? |
-attach to a plasma-membrane receptor -causes a second-messenger cascade in the cytoplasm of the target cell |
|
cAMP is synthesized from what? |
-a molecule of ATP |
|
The synthesis of cAMP makes the cell more what? |
-metabolically active -more able to respond to a stimulus |
|
examples of slow-acting hormones |
-steroid -thyroxine |
|
Steroid hormones and thyroxine enter what and interact with what? |
-enter the target cell -interact with the nucleus |
|
Why do steroid hormones and thyroxine interact with the nucleus? |
-affect the transcription of various proteins that the cell can synthesize |
|
Do the organs of the endocrine system function independently? |
-no, the activities are coordinated |
|
Positive or negative feedback is important in regulating hormone secretion, synthesis, and effectiveness at target cells? |
-negative feedback |
|
How does negative feedback impact hormones? |
-if the body needs a particular hormone, the hormone will be produced until there is too much of it -once there is too much of the hormone, its release will be inhibited |
|
What is an example of a hormone being regulated by positive feedback? |
-oxytocin |
|
Where is oxytocin released from? |
-posterior pituitary |
|
oxytocin |
-hormone that causes the muscle layer of the uterus (myometrium) to contract during childbirth |
|
metabolism |
-broad range of biochemical reactions occurring in the body |
|
What are the two forms of metabolism? |
-anabolism -catabolism |
|
anabolism |
-building up of small molecules into larger molecules via enzymatic reactions -energy is stored in the chemical bonds when larger molecules are formed |
|
catabolism |
-breakdown of large molecules into smaller molecules via enzymatic reactions -breaking of chemical bonds releases energy that the cell can use |
|
Humans are what kind of organisms? |
-homeothermic |
|
homeothermic |
-need to maintain a fixed body temperature to maintain the activity of the various metabolic pathways in the body |
|
What is the most important hormone for maintaining metabolism and body heat? |
-thyroxine (thyroid hormone…tetraiodothyronine or T4) |
|
Where is thyroxine secreted? |
-thyroid gland (in the neck) |
|
The production of thyroxine is controlled by what? |
-pituitary gland (hypophysis) |
|
The pituitary gland secretes what? |
-thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) |
|
The TSH causes the thyroid gland to do what? |
-increase in size -secrete thyroxine into the general circulation |
|
If TSH levels are too high, what happens to the thyroid gland? |
-enlarges resulting in a goiter |
|
hypothalamus |
-participant in thyroxine and TSH production -primary endocrine gland -secretes several hormones that affect the pituitary gland |
|
What hormone is directly linked to thyroxine and TSH secretion? |
-thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH) |
|
Where is TRH secreted from? |
-hypothalamus |
|
The TRH stimulates what to produce what? |
-stimulates anterior pituitary -produces TSH which then stimulates the thyroid to produce thyroxine |
|
When circulation levels of thyroxine are low, what happens? |
-hypothalamus secretes more TRH |
|
Why does the hypothalamus secrete more TRH? |
-to stimulate the pituitary gland to secrete more TSH |
|
The increase in TSH further stimulates what? |
-secretion of thyroxine from the thyroid gland |
|
The increased levels of thyroxine influences what to do what? |
-influences hypothalamus -reduce production of TRH |
|
How does the TRH travel from the hypothalamus to the pituitary gland? |
-hypothalamic-pituitary portal system |
|
hypothalamic-pituitary portal system |
-specialized arrangement of blood vessels that consists of a single portal vein that connects two capillary beds -transports many hormones from the hypothalamus to the pituitary gland |
|
The hypothalamus primarily secretes what kind of hormones? |
-tropic hormones |
|
Tropic hormones stimulate what? |
-secretion of other hormones |
|
What are examples of tropic hormones? |
-TRH: stimulates the release of TSH from the pituitary gland -TSH: stimulates production of thyroxine -ACTH -CRH |
|
What was the purpose of this physioex? |
-investigate the effects of thyroxine and TSH on a rat’s metabolic rate |
|
The metabolic rate will be indicated by what? |
-amount of oxygen the rate consumes per time per body mass |
|
How many experiments will you perform on how many rats? |
-4 experiments -3 rats |
|
thyroidectomized rat |
-rat whose thyroid gland has been surgically removed |
|
hypophysectomized rat |
-rat whose pituitary gland has been surgically removed |
|
propylthiouracil |
-drug that inhibits the production of thyroxine |
|
What does soda lime do? |
-absorbs the carbon dioxide given off by the rat |
|
insulin |
-hormone produced by the beta cells of the endocrine portion of the pancreas |
|
Insulin is vital to the regulation of what? |
-plasma glucose levels or "blood sugar" |
|
Glucose absorbed from the blood is used for what? |
-fuel for metabolism -stored as glycogen |
|
Glycogen is stored in what types of cells? |
-muscle and liver cells |
|
How much glucose consumed during a meal is stored as glycogen? |
-75% |
|
When glucose levels in the plasma fall below a certain value, the alpha cells of the pancreas are stimulated to release what? |
-glucagon |
|
glucagon |
-hormone that stimulates the breakdown of stored glycogen into glucose which is released back into the blood |
|
When the pancreas doesn’t produce enough insulin, what results? |
-type 1 diabetes mellitus |
|
When the pancreas produces sufficient insulin but the body fails to respond, what results? |
-type 2 diabetes mellitus |
|
What organs filter the excess glucose out of the plasma? |
-kidneys |
|
Inability of body cells to take up glucose from the blood is also a result from what? |
-skeletal muscle cells undergoing protein catabolism |
|
A patient with FPG values greater than or equal to 126 mg/dl in two FPG tests is diagnosed with what? |
-diabetes |
|
FPG values between 110 and 126 mg/dl indicate what? |
-impairment or borderline impairment of insulin-mediated glucose uptake by cells |
|
FPG values less than 110 mg/dl is considered what? |
-normal |
|
follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) |
-anterior pituitary peptide hormone that stimulates ovarian follicle growth |
|
Ovarian follicles produce and secrete what? |
-estrogen |
|
Estrogen is what kind of hormone? |
-steroid hormone |
|
Estrogen affects what? |
-female body and homeostasis -stimulation of bone growth and protection against osteoporosis |
|
osteoporosis |
-reduction in the quantity of bone -decreased bone mass -increased susceptibility to fractures |
|
After menopause, what happens to the ovaries? |
-stop producing and secreting estrogen |
|
What is one of the effects and potential health problems of menopause? |
-loss of bone density (osteoporosis and bone fractures) |
|
What secretes calcitonin? |
-C cells in the thyroid gland |
|
calcitonin |
-peptide hormone -counteracts development of osteoporosis -inhibits osteoclast activity -stimulates calcium uptake and deposition in long bones |
|
ovariectomized rats |
-rats that no longer produce estrogen because their ovaries were surgically removed |
|
T score |
-quantitative measurement of the mineral content of bone -indicator of the structural strength of the bone -screen for osteoporosis |
|
normal T score |
+1 to -0.99 |
|
osteopenia T score |
-1.0 to -2.49 |
|
osteoporosis T score |
-2.5 and below |
|
What secretes cortisol? |
-adrenal cortex |
|
Cortisol is important in the body’s response to what? |
-stress |
|
Cortisol release is stimulated by what? |
-adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) |
|
adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) |
-tropic hormone released by the anterior pituitary |
|
ACTH release is stimulated by what? |
-corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) |
|
corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) |
-tropic hormone from the hypothalamus |
|
Increased levels of cortisol negatively feed back to inhibit what? |
-release of both ACTH and CRH |
|
hypercortisolism |
-increased cortisol in the blood |
|
Cushing’s syndrome |
-if the increased cortisol in the blood is caused by an adrenal gland tumor -iatrogenic -"steroid diabetes": results in hyperglycemia |
|
iatrogenic |
-physician induced |
|
physician-induced Cushing’s syndrome |
-glucocorticoid hormones (prednisone) are administered to treat rheumatoid arthritis, asthma, or lupus |
|
Cushing’s disease |
-hypercortisolism caused by an anterior pituitary tumor -increased levels of ACTH |
|
hypocortisolism |
-decreased cortisol in the blood |
|
Addison’s disease |
-decreased cortisol in the blood is caused by gradual destruction of the adrenal cortex and elevated ACTH levels -primary adrenal insufficiency |
|
secondary adrenal insufficiency |
-low levels of cortisol due to damage to the anterior pituitary -low levels of ACTH |
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