Macro 8

Money

is any commodity or token that is generally acceptable as a means of payment. A means of payment is a method of settling a debt. Money has three other functions: Medium of exchange Unit of account Store of value

Medium of Exchange

is an object that is generally accepted in exchange for goods and services. In the absence of money, people would need to exchange goods and services directly, which is called barter. Barter requires a double coincidence of wants, which is rare, so barter is costly.

A unit of account

is an agreed measure for stating the prices of goods and services.

Store of Value

As a store of value, money can be held for a time and later exchanged for goods and services.

Money in the United States Today

consists of – Currency – Deposits at banks and other depository institutions Currency is the notes and coins held by households and firms.

Official Measures of Money

The two main official measures of money in the United States are M1 and M2. M1 consists of currency and traveler’s checks and checking deposits owned by individuals and businesses. M2 consists of M1 plus time, saving deposits, money market mutual funds, and other deposits.

Are M1 and M2 Really Money?

All the items in M1 are means of payment. They are money. Some saving deposits in M2 are not means of payments—they are called liquid assets. Liquidity is the property of being instantly convertible into a means of payment with little loss of value.

Deposits are Money but Checks Are Not

In defining money, we include, along with currency, deposits at banks and other depository institutions. But we do not count the checks that people write as money. A check is an instruction to a bank to transfer money.

Credit Cards Are Not Money?

Credit cards are not money. A credit card enables the holder to obtain a loan, but it must be repaid with money.

A depository institution

is a firm that takes deposits from households and firms and makes loans to other households and firms.

Types of Depository Institutions

Deposits at three institutions make up the nation’s money. They are Commercial banks Thrift institutions Money market mutual funds

Commercial Banks

is a private firm that is licensed by the Comptroller of the Currency or by a state agency to receive deposits and make loans.

Money Market Mutual Funds

is a fund operated by a financial institution that sells shares in the fund and holds assets such as U.S. Treasury bills.

Thrift Institutions

Savings and loan associations, savings banks, and credit unions are called thrift institutions.

What Depository Institutions Do

The goal of any bank is to maximize the wealth of its owners. To achieve this objective, the interest rate at which it lends exceeds the interest rate it pays on deposits. But the banks must balance profit and prudence: Loans generate profit. Depositors must be able to obtain their funds when they want them.

A commercial bank puts the depositors’ funds into four types of assets:

1. Reserves—notes and coins in its vault or its deposit at the Federal Reserve 2. Liquid assets—U.S. government Treasury bills and commercial bills 3. Securities—longer-term U.S. government bonds and other bonds such as mortgage-backed securities 4. Loans—commitments of fixed amounts of money for agreed-upon periods of time

Economic Benefits Provided by Depository Institutions

Depository institutions make a profit from the spread between the interest rate they pay on their deposits and the interest rate they charge on their loans. Depository institutions provide four benefits: Create liquidity Pool risk Lower the cost of borrowing Lower the cost of monitoring borrowers

How Depository Institutions Are Regulated

Depository institutions engage in risky business. To make the risk of failure small, depository institutions are required to hold levels of reserves and owners’ capital equal to or that surpass the ratios laid down by regulation. If a depository institution fails, deposits are guaranteed up to $250,000 per depositor per bank by the FDIC—Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation.

financial innovation

the development of new financial products—is to lower the cost of deposits or to increase the return from lending. Two influences on financial innovation are Economic environment Technology

The Federal Reserve System (the Fed)

is the central bank of the United States. The Fed’s goals are to keep inflation in check, maintain full employment, moderate the business cycle, and contribute toward achieving long-term growth.

central bank

is the public authority that regulates a nation’s depository institutions and controls the quantity of money.

federal funds rate

In pursuit of its goals, the Fed pays close attention to the federal funds rate—the interest rate that banks charge each other on overnight loans of reserves.

The Structure of the Fed

The key elements in the structure of the Fed are The Board of Governors The regional Federal Reserve banks The Federal Open Market Committee

The Board of Governors

Has seven members appointed by the president of the United States and confirmed by the Senate. Board terms are for 14 years and terms are staggered so that one position becomes vacant every 2 years. The president appoints one member to a (renewable) four-year term as chairman. Each of the 12 Federal Reserve Regional Banks has a nine-person board of directors and a president.

The Federal Open Market Committee (FOMC)

is the main policy-making group in the Federal Reserve System. It consists of the members of the Board of Governors, the president of the Federal Reserve Bank of New York, and the 11 presidents of other regional Federal Reserve banks of whom, on a rotating basis, 4 are voting members. The FOMC meets every six weeks to formulate monetary policy.

Chairman of the Board of Governors

chairman of the Board of Governors (since 2006 Ben Bernanke) is the largest influence on the Fed’s policy. He controls the agenda of the Board, has better contact with the Fed’s staff, and is the Fed’s spokesperson and point of contact with the federal government and with foreign central banks and governments.

The Fed’s Balance Sheet

On the Fed’s balance sheet, the largest and most important asset is U.S. government securities. The most important liabilities are Federal Reserve notes in circulation and banks’ deposits. The sum of Federal Reserve notes, coins, and depository institutions’ deposits at the Fed is the monetary base.

The Fed’s Policy Tools

To achieve its objectives, the Fed uses three main policy tools: Open market operations Last resort loans Required reserve ratios

An open market operation

is the purchase or sale of government securities by the Fed from or to a commercial bank or the public. When the Fed buys securities, it pays for them with newly created reserves held by the banks. When the Fed sells securities, they are paid for with reserves held by banks. So open market operations influence banks’ reserves. The open market purchase increases bank reserves. The open market sale decreases bank reserves.

Last Resort Loans

The Fed is the lender of last resort, which means the Fed stands ready to lend reserves to depository institutions that are short of reserves. Required Reserve Ratio The Fed sets the required reserve ratio, which is the minimum percentage of deposits that a depository institution must hold as reserves. The Fed rarely changes the required reserve ratio.

Creating Deposits by Making Loans

Banks create deposits when they make loans and the new deposits created are new money. The quantity of deposits that banks can create is limited by three factors: The monetary base Desired reserves Desired currency holding

The Monetary Base

is the sum of Federal Reserve notes, coins, and banks’ deposits at the Fed. The size of the monetary base limits the total quantity of money that the banking system can create because Banks have desired reserves Households and firms have desired currency holdings And both these desired holdings of monetary base depend on the quantity of money.

Desired Reserves

A bank’s actual reserves consists of notes and coins in its vault and its deposit at the Fed. The desired reserve ratio is the ratio of the bank’s reserves to total deposits that a bank plans to hold. The desired reserve ratio exceeds the required reserve ratio by the amount that the bank determines to be prudent for its daily business.

Desired Currency Holding

People hold some fraction of their money as currency. So when the total quantity of money increases, so does the quantity of currency that people plan to hold. Because desired currency holding increases when deposits increase, currency leaves the banks when they make loans and increase deposits. This leakage of reserves into currency is called the currency drain. The ratio of currency to deposits is the currency drain ratio.

The Money Creation Process

The money creation process begins with an increase in the monetary base. The Fed conducts an open market operation in which it buys securities from banks. The Fed pays for the securities with newly created bank reserves. Banks now have more reserves but the same amount of deposits, so they have excess reserves. Excess reserves = Actual reserves – desired reserves.

The Influences on Money Holding

The quantity of money that people plan to hold depends on four main factors: The price level The nominal interest rate Real GDP Financial innovation

The Price Level

A rise in the price level increases the quantity of nominal money but doesn’t change the quantity of real money that people plan to hold. Nominal money is the amount of money measured in dollars. Real money equals nominal money ÷ price level. The quantity of nominal money demanded is proportional to the price level—a 10 percent rise in the price level increases the quantity of nominal money demanded by 10 percent.

The Nominal Interest Rate

The nominal interest rate is the opportunity cost of holding wealth in the form of money rather than an interest-bearing asset. A rise in the nominal interest rate on other assets decreases the quantity of real money that people plan to hold.

Real GDP

An increase in real GDP increases the volume of expenditure, which increases the quantity of real money that people plan to hold.

Financial Innovation

Financial innovation that lowers the cost of switching between money and interest-bearing assets decreases the quantity of real money that people plan to hold.

The Demand for Money

The demand for money is the relationship between the quantity of real money demanded and the nominal interest rate when all other influences on the amount of money that people wish to hold remain the same.

the demand for money curve.

A rise in the interest rate brings a decrease in the quantity of real money demanded. A fall in the interest rate brings an increase in the quantity of real money demanded.

Shifts in the Demand for Money Curve

a decrease in real GDP or a financial innovation decreases the demand for money and shifts the demand curve leftward. An increase in real GDP increases the demand for money and shifts the demand curve rightward.

Money Market Equilibrium

occurs when the quantity of money demanded equals the quantity of money supplied. Adjustments that occur to bring about money market equilibrium are fundamentally different in the short run and the long run.

The demand for money.

Suppose that the Fed uses open market operations to make the quantity of money $3 billion. The equilibrium interest rate is 5 percent a year.

The Short-Run Effect of a Change in the Supply of Money

If the Fed increases the quantity of money, people will be holding more money than the quantity demanded. They buy bonds. The increased demand for bonds raises the bond price and lowers the interest rate.

The Short-Run Effect of a Change in the Supply of Money

If the Fed decreases the quantity of money, people will be holding less money than the quantity demanded. They sell bonds. The increased supply of bonds lowers the bond price and raises the interest rate.

Long-Run Equilibrium

In the long run, the loanable funds market determines the real interest rate. The nominal interest rate equals the equilibrium real interest rate plus the expected inflation rate. In the long run, real GDP equals potential GDP, so the only variable left to adjust in the long run is the price level.

long-run equilibrium 2

The price level adjusts to make the quantity of real money supplied equal to the quantity demanded. If in long-run equilibrium, the Fed increases the quantity of money, the price level changes to move the money market to a new long-run equilibrium. In the long run, nothing real has changed. Real GDP, employment, quantity of real money, and the real interest rate are unchanged. In the long run, the price level rises by the same percentage as the increase in the quantity of money.

The Transition from the Short Run to the Long Run

Start in full-employment equilibrium: If the Fed increases the quantity of money by 10 percent, the nominal interest rate falls. As people buy bonds, the real interest rate falls. As the real interest rate falls, consumption expenditure and investment increase. Aggregate demand increases. With the economy at full employment, the price level rises.

The Transition from the Short Run to the Long Run 2

As the price level rises, the quantity of real money decreases. The nominal interest rate and the real interest rate rise. As the real interest rate rises, expenditure plans are cut back and eventually the original full-employment equilibrium is restored. In the new long-run equilibrium, the price level has risen 10 percent but nothing real has changed.