Exam 2, Intro to Psych.

consciousness

What term do psychologists use to designate our personal awareness of feelings, sensations, and thoughts?

altered state of consciousness

What do we call a state of consciousness that can result from the use of alcohol, drugs, or hypnosis?

sleep

What used to be called "the gentle tyrant"?

sleep-wake cycle

The hypothalamus controls the ___________.

sleep periods in which a person’s eyes move rapidly.

REM sleep refers to __________________.

stage 4

The deepest stage of sleep is ________ sleep.

are hard to wake up.

People in stage 4 sleep _____________.

failure of the brain mechanism to block brain signals to the muscles.

REM behavior disorder results from _________________.

4th

Judith is startled when her 6-year-old daughter, Laura, sleepwalks into the family room. It is most likely that Laura is experiencing the _______________ stage of the sleep cycle.

Sleep Apnea

___________________ is a disorder in which breathing briefly stops during sleep, causing the person to choke, gasp, and momentarily awaken.

Narcoloepy

Your friend has experienced excessive daytime sleepiness. He is laughing with you and suddenly falls to the ground. Your friend is probably suffering from ____________.

Learning

__________ is any relatively permanent change in behavior brought about by experience or practice.

. it is thought that when learning occurs some part of the brain physically changes

Learning is said to be a relatively permanent change in behavior because ________.

classical conditioning

As an infant, Stephanie received many penicillin injections from the doctor. When she later saw a photographer in a white coat that was similar to the doctor’s coat, she started to cry. This is an example of _______________.

an unconditioned response

Normally, when food is placed in the mouth of any animal, the salivary glands start releasing saliva to help with chewing and digestion. In terms of Pavlov’s analysis of learning, salivation would be referred to as ________.

classical conditioning

Learning to make a reflex response to a stimulus other than to the original, natural stimulus is called ________________.

unconditioned response

The abbreviation UCR stands for _____________.

fish food

Alan always turns the aquarium light on before putting fish food into the tank. After a while he notices that the fish swim to the top to look for the food as soon as he turns on the light. In this example, the________________ is the unconditioned stimulus.

conditioned stimulus

Miranda notices that her cat salivates as soon as her cat hears the sound of the electric can opener. In this example, the sound of the can opener is the ______________.

conditioned stimulus

The abbreviation CS stands for _____________.

the bell should have been sounded before the dog ate the biscuit

You decide that you are going to condition your dog to salivate to the sound of a bell. You give the dog a biscuit, and then a second later you ring the bell. You do this several times, but no conditioning seems to occur. This is probably because ___________.

stimulus generalization

After Little Albert acquired a conditioned fear of rats, Watson wanted to see how he would react to a white rabbit, cotton wool, and a Santa Claus mask. He was studying whether or not _____________________ had occurred.

extinction, sponaneous recovery, and generalization all happen.

Which of the following processes occur in both operant conditioning and classical conditioning? 1. extinction 2. sponaneous recovery 3. generalization or 4.all of them.

extinction

After Pavlov’s dogs became conditioned to salivate at the sound of the bell, he experimented with ringing the bell and then failing to present the dogs with any food right away. Soon they stopped salivating to the sound of the bell. This represents the process called ___________________.

spontaneous recovery

The reappearance of a learned response after extinction has occurred is called ______.

conditioned emotional response

The learning of phobias is a very good example of which certain type of classical conditioning?

vicarious conditioning

It is even possible to become classically conditioned by simply watching someone else respond to a stimulus in a process called ________________.

Both of these are examples of taste aversions

An important example of conditioned taste aversions might be ____________.

biological preparedness

Conditioned taste aversions are an example of something called __________.

operant conditioning

The kind of learning that applies to voluntary behavior is called __________________.

a puzzle box

Thorndike was known for his work with ______.

a dog blinking its eyes after a flash of light is presented

Which of the following is NOT an example of operant behavior? a child doing her homework after she receives her teacher’s approval for her behavior. a rat pressing a bar after receiving food for this behavior. a dog blinking its eyes after a flash of light is presented. or a rat pressing a bar after avoiding a shock for this behavior.

Thorndike’s Law of Effect

"If a response is followed by a pleasurable consequence, it will tend to be repeated. If a response is followed by an unpleasant consequence, it will tend not to be repeated." This is a statement of ________________.

strengthens; weakens

A reinforcer is a consequence that _____________________ a behavior, while a punisher is a consequence that _____________________ a behavior. "weakens & strengths", or "strengths & weakens"

primary

A _____________________ reinforcer is any reward that satisfies a basic, biological need, such a hunger, thirst, or touch.

A cupcake; a certificate of achievement given to a student

________ is an example of a primary reinforcer, whereas ________ is an example of a secondary reinforcer.

regardless of whether it is a positive or negative reinforcer, a reinforcer makes a response more likely to occur.

Under what circumstances will a reinforcer make the target response more likely to occur again?

. removed; increases

A negative reinforcer is a stimulus that is ___________ and, thus, ________ the probability of a response.

punishment

What has occurred when there is a decrease in the likelihood or rate of a target response?

punishment by removal

When a stimulus is removed from a person or animal resulting in a decrease in the probability of response, it is known as __________.

All of these statements are true.

Which of the following statements is true regarding punishment? Chioces: The effect of punishment is often temporary. Severe punishment creates fear and anxiety. Punishment is the opposite of reinforcement. All of these statements are true.

Fear interferes with the child’s ability to learn from the punishment

Why does fear caused by punishment make the punishment ineffective in changing behavior?

Olivia is modeling the aggressive behavior her parents demonstrated to her.

Olivia is punished.Her parents give her a spanking and send her to her room, Later, her puppy makes a mess on the floor. Olivia kicks her puppy and puts it out in the yard.Which of the following statements explains her behavior toward the puppy?

shaping

Mary’s parents want her to put her books in her bookcase. At first, they praise her for putting the books together in one pile. Then they praise her for getting the books on the same side of the room as the bookcase. When she gets the books on top of the bookcase, she gets praise. Finally, her parents praise her when she puts her books in the bookcase. This is an example of ____________.

partial reinforcement

What kind of reinforcement is used if Sally’s parents give her $10 every time she accumulates six As on her tests?

Partial reinforcement leads to behaviors that will persist longer than behavior learned through continuous reinforcement.

Which of the following statements is true about operant conditioning? Continuous reinforcement leads to behaviors that will persist longer than behavior learned through partial or intermittent reinforcement. or Partial reinforcement leads to behaviors that will persist longer than behavior learned through continuous reinforcement.

ratio

When the number of responses is important to a schedule of reinforcement, that schedule is called a _____________ schedule.

behavior modification

A school issues tokens to the children for good behavior. This issue of a token is an example of ___________.

token economy

In order to get her 2nd grade students to memorize the poems written on the chalkboard, Mrs. Thyberg gives the students stickers for each poem they can recite from memory. After earning 5 stickers, a student gets to pick a prize out of the goody box. Mrs. Thyberg is using (a) _____________________ to modify the children’s behaviors.

It involves the process of shaping.

Which of the following statements is true about behavior modification? It involves the process of shaping. It is useful only for teaching autistic children. It is different from behavior modification. It cannot be used with animals.

insight learning

The "aha!" experience is known as ________________.

learned helplessness

A researcher places rabbits in a cage with metal bars on the floor. The rabbits are randomly given electric shocks and can do nothing to prevent them or stop them. Later, the same rabbits are placed in a cage where they can escape the shocks by jumping over a low hurdle. When the shocks are given, the rabbits do not even try to escape. They just sit and cower. This is an example of ____________.

observational learning

Which type of learning occurs when we observe how other people act?

receiving information from the senses, organizing and storing the information, and retrieving the information from storage

Memory is defined as an active system that consists of three processes. They are ______________.

Memory

____________ is defined as an active system that receives information from the senses, organizes and alters information as it stores it away, and then retrieves the information from storage

retrieval

Shaquin finished his term paper and handed it in. As he walked out of the classroom, he realized that there were a few more things he should have included in the paper. Shaquin’s problem is the __________ component of memory.

encoding

The first step in the memory process is _____________ information in a form that the memory system can use.

Storage

_____________ is retention of memory for some period of time

It is a process of getting stored memories back out into consciousness.

Which of the following statements is true about retrieval? It is a process that allows an extinguished CR to recover. or It is a process of getting stored memories back out into consciousness.

information processing

The processes of encoding, storage, and retrieval are seen as part of the ____________ model of memory

deeper

According to the levels-of-processing model of memory, we are most likely to remember information that we process at a _______________ level.

parallel distributed processing

In the _________________ model, memory is seen as a simultaneous process, with the creation and storage of memories taking place across a series of networks "stretched" across the brain.

information-processing model

Which model of memory is most similar in conceptualization to the way computers function?

sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory.

The three parts of the information-processing model of memory are ____________.

sensory memory

Which memory system provides us with a very brief representation of all the stimuli present at a particular moment?

iconic memory

You are out for a drive with the family and are lucky enough to get a window seat. The rapidly passing scenery you see out the window is first stored in _____________.

He had a photographic memory, which helped him remember the material he had to learn.

A time machine provides you the opportunity to interview Sigmund Freud. During the interview, Freud admits that he never wanted to attend medical school. When you ask him how he made it through, he says, "I had eidetic imagery." What does he mean by that?

selective attention

Information gets from sensory memory to short-term memory through the process of _________________.

short-term memory

Which memory system is the one that is a working, active system that processes the information within it?

7

What "magic number" did Miller find to be the capacity of short-term memory?

chunking

Bits of information are combined into meaningful units so that more information can be held in short-term memory through the process of ______.

repeating some bit of information over and over in one’s head in order to maintain it in short-term memory

Maintenance rehearsal is defined as ________________.

maintenance

Repeating items over and over in order to aid memory is known as ______ rehearsal.

unlimited

It is thought that long-term memory never can get filled up. The term used to describe the capacity of long-term memory is _______________.

Elaborative; maintenance

_______ rehearsal results in a more lasting memory and promotes the transfer of information to long-term memory compared to _______ rehearsal.

long-term memory

The portion of memory that is more or less permanent is called ______.

procedural memories

Which type of long-term memory is most difficult to bring into conscious awareness?

declarative memories

Memories for general facts and personal information are called _________.

semantic memory

General knowledge, language, and concepts are seen as parts of ___________.

episodic memory

Personal facts and memories of one’s personal history are parts of ___________.

are stored physically closer to each other than concepts that are not highly related

In the semantic network model of memory, concepts that are related in meaning _________________.

retrieval cue

Someone asks you to name the 26nd president of the United States, but you can’t remember. To aid your memory, the person then tells you that the president’s name is the same as that of a large city on Lake Erie. Upon hearing the hint, you instantly realize that Grover Cleveland is the answer. In this situation, the hint acted as a(n) ______.

They are important in helping us remember items stored in long‑term memory

Which of the following statements is true of retrieval cues?

. using physical surroundings or emotions as retrieval cues for specific memories

Encoding specificity refers to _______________.

All of these are examples that use recall.

Which of the following is an example of a test using recall? Choices: short answer. essay. fill-in-the-blank. All of these are examples that use recall.

the tip-of-the-tongue effect

When the sound of the word is the aspect that cannot be retrieved, leaving only the feeling of knowing the word without the ability to pronounce it, this is known as _________.

the items at the beginning and at the end more than those in the middle of the list

When given a list of items to remember, you are more likely to remember _______.

primacy effect

When given a list of items to remember, people tend to do better at recalling the first items on the list than the middle of the list. This is known as the ______.

recency effect

When given a list of items to remember, people tend to do better at recalling the last items on the list. This is known as the ______.

both multiple choice and matching

Examples of tests that use recognition are _____________? Choices: multiple choice. matching. none of these. both multiple choice and matching

usually concern events that are emotionally charged

Flashbulb memories ______.

to become changed or altered in some fashion

As memories get older, they are most likely ____________________.

nonsense syllables

What type of stimuli did Hermann Ebbinghaus use in his memory experiments?

encoding failure

Most people have difficulty actually recognizing the correct image of the Lincoln penny. The most likely cause of this problem is _______________.

older information already in memory interferes with the retrieval of newer information

Proactive interference as used in the study of memory refers to when _____________.

interference from other information

Forgetting in long-term memory is most likely due to ___________

awareness of ourselves and the environment

Consciousness is the ________________.

waking consciousness

The state we are in when we are awake and reasonably alert is called ______.

altered states of consciousness

Mental activities that differ noticeably from normal waking consciousness are known as ________.

There is an organ in the brain sensitive to light changes, which then affects our sleepiness.

What aspect of circadian rhythms might explain why we tend to feel so tired at night?

circadian

A biological cycle, or rhythm, that is approximately 24 hours long is called a(n) ______ cycle.

Most people need between 7 and 8 hours of sleep

Which statement is correct concerning how much sleep people need?

Non-REM sleep

What term do sleep researchers use to designate stages 1-4 of sleep?

REM deprivation leads to increased amounts of REM sleep on subsequent nights of sleep.

Which of the following is CORRECT concerning REM deprivation?