"4 Biomolecules and Monomers |
Protein (amino acids) Carbohydrates (simple sugars) Lipids (glycerol and fatty acids) Nuclei acids (nucleotides)" |
dipeptides |
two amino acids bonded together |
what is the general fatty acid formula |
CH3(CH2)nCOOH where n= an even number between 12 and 24 |
explain identifying saturated vs. unsaturated fats |
saturated: only single bonds in hydrocarbon chain… unsaturated: one or more double bonds |
glycerides |
glycerol and 3 fatty acids |
Levels of Protein Structure |
1. order of amino acids 2. alpha-helices or beta-pleated sheets 3. bonding b/w a.a. side chains 4. multi-subunit structure |
nucleotide is composed of |
phosphate group; sugar group; nitrogenous base |
Vmax |
maximum reaction rate at which point substrate is saturated with enzyme |
Feedback Inhibition |
end-product of enzyme catalyzed rxn. blocks original enz. |
Competitive Inhibition |
molecules compete with substrate for enzyme’s active sites |
irreversible inhibitors |
chemically and covalently bind to active site; rendering it permanently inactive |
psuedoirreversible inhibitors |
extremely high affinities for active site; hard to displace |
noncompetitive inhibitors |
do not compete for active site but act elsewhere on enz.; altering 3D shape |
photosynthesis |
anabolic process that converts sunlight into energy stored in the phosphate bonds of ATP, then more permanently stored in bonds of organic carbon compounds |
electron transport chain |
series of carrier molecules on the inner mitochondrial membrane which pass electrons through enzymes that pump protons to one side of the membrane, creating a proton gradient |
chemiosmosis |
the use of a gradient, such as a proton gradient, to generate energy. The ATP synthase enzyme uses the kinetic movement of protons down the gradient to store energy by converting ADP to ATP |
ATP |
Adenosine tri phosphate, a modified nucleotide that stores energy in it’s phosphate bonds. |
fermentation |
glycolysis and the additional steps leading to the formation of ethanol or lactic acid, to make ATP. It does not include the Kreb’s cycle (producing CO2) or the ETC. |
occluding/tight junctions |
nothing can diffuse between cells or past junction |
anchoring junctions |
physical joining so cells do not shear away |
communicating junctions |
gap junctions are formed by proteins called connexins that allow for undisrupted and very fast signal transmission |
plasmodesmata |
plant cells’ equivalent of gap junctions |
G-actin |
globular monomer |
F-actin |
long filament |
microtubules |
cellular conveyor belts |
microtubule assoc. proteins |
attach to tubulin on one end and cargo on the other dyneins: pull to center kinesins: outside" |
9+2 structure |
9 prs microtubules surrounding 2 central microtubules for stability (structure of cilia&flagella) |
basal bodies |
microtubule triplets; anchor cilia/flagella; foundation for new microtubules |
centrioles |
anchor microtubules growing into mitotic spindle |
intermediate filaments |
thin fibers wound together in tight coils; membrane stability |
proto-oncogenes |
normal genes involved in control of cell growth/division |
oncogenes |
mutations occur and no longer maintain control over a particular aspect of growth |
density-dependent inhibition |
normal cells able to suppress growth when near other cells |
alleles |
different forms of a gene |
homozygous/heterozygous |
homo: 2 copies of same allele; hetero: one dom.; one rec. |
dominance |
only one dom. needed for phenotype to be present |
segregation |
2 alleles for given trait seperate during meiosis |
independent assortment |
genes for one trait separate independent of genes for another trait |
incomplete dominance |
single dom. allele cannot produce full phenotype; see blending |
codominance |
2 different alleles both show up in phenotype |
epistasis |
second gene determines if first gene is expressed or not |
mitochondrial inheritance |
all genes present in mitochondria come from mother |
genomic imprinting |
certain alleles are encoded differently depended on which parent allele comes from |
triple repeat extension |
number of repeats increases with each generation |
transformation |
bacteria picks up free DNA |
conjugation |
cytoplasmic extensions between bacterial cells allow movement of plasmids |
transduction |
viruses infect bacterial cells |
nucleosomes |
spools of DNA wrapped around histone proteins |
exons |
coding sequences of DNA |
introns |
non-coding sequences of DNA |
spliceosome |
lg ribonucleotide that forms during excision of introns and splicing of exons |
transposons |
pieces of DNA that can move from place to place within organism’s genome |
enhancers |
non-coding regions of DNA that influence the activation of genes |
methylation |
DNA is subject to addition of CH3 to nitrogenous bases; can’t be transcribed |
pyrimidine bases |
C and T; single rings of nitrogen and carbon |
purine bases |
G and A; two fused rings of nitrogen and carbon |
Okasaki fragments |
sm. fragments of DNA that lagging strand is built out of as enzyme has to jump ahead and work backwards to go in 5 to 3 direction |
endonucleases |
cleave out and replace damaged DNA in middle of strands |
thymine dimers |
adj. T molecules bond covalently due to UV energy |
primase |
builds RNA primer for DNA replication |
helicase |
enzyme that unwinds DNA |
topoisomerases |
regulate supercoiling of DNA into chromosomes |
DNA ligase |
connects Okasaki fragments left over from discont. syn. on lagging strand of DNA |
temperate phage |
bacteriophage that has been integrated into host DNA |
viroid |
viruslike particles composed of single molecule of circ. RNA |
prions |
infectious pieces of protein |
lysozome |
enz. that can destroy bacterial cell walls and some viral capsules (present in saliva; tears; mucous) |
monocytes |
macrophages circ. in blood |
polyclonal |
antibodies that arise in natural course of fighting infection; produced by several diff clones of B cells and cover wide range of specicity |
monoclonal |
antibodies arising from a single clone (a single B cell that has rapidly divided into identical B cells) |
lag period |
period after exposure to antigen before helpful levels of antibodies are made by B cells |
tissue-specific promoters |
guarantee expression of particular gene in only one type of tissue |
restriction enzymes |
recognize specific DNA sequences and cleave them |
Sanger method |
DNA sequencing |
Southern blot |
used to probe DNA for certain sequences |
RFLP |
restriction fragment length polymorphisms; diff in length of fragments made by restriction enz digestion of 2 DNA samples |
ruminants |
variations in: enlarged multichambered stomachs; length of alimentary canal; shape of teeth |
trachae |
resp tubules that make up anthropod resp sys. open to outside through spiracles |
cloaca |
opening found at tail end of reptiles used for excretion and resp |
homeotherms |
maintain nearly constant body temp even as surroundings change (endotherms) |
air sacs |
allow fresh air to flow through lungs even during exhalation; present in birds; even in bones for better flight |
lamellae |
platelike structures on filaments of gill arches where O2 diffusion occurs in fish |
countercurrent exchange |
blood flows opposite of O2 source (fish) |
opercula |
gill coverings |
Bohr Effect |
O2 dissociation curve shifts right as pH drops; ev adaptation; hgb looses O2 more quickly in acidic environ. (to help O2 get into cells) |
myoglobin |
resp pigment found in muscle cells and where O2 used most quickly; higher O2 affinity |
protonephridia |
series of tubes in flatworms to tx excretory waste through; end in hollow bulbs (flame cells) |
nephridia |
specialized tubes to excrete mineral salts and urea in annelid worms |
Malphhigian tubes |
outfoldings of digestive tract in the midgut of insects for absorption |
ectotherms |
coldblooded; not capable of maintaining constant int temp (reptiles; amphibians etc.) |
established/innate reflex |
unconditioned stim and response it naturally elicits |
neutral stimulus |
stim that will not by itself elicit a response |
display |
innate behavior that has evolved as a signal for comm b/w members of same sp. |
interoceptors |
monitor aspects of int environ |
proprioceptors |
transmit info regarding position of body in space |
exteroreceptors |
sense things in ext environ |
endolymph |
fluid that fills 3 semicirc canals of ear |
motor end plate |
special region where motor nerve synapses on a muscle |
hydrostatic skeleton |
fluid skeleton; fluid held under pressure within closed body cavity (earthworm) |
exoskeleton |
hard shell or casing deposited on the surface of an organism (insects) |
endoskeleton |
internal sys of bones and cartilage that support surrounding soft tissues (vertebrates) |
chemotaxis |
movement in a direction based on a gradient of a diffusible chem that is sensed by smell (WBCs) |
monozygotic twins |
identical; single zygote splits into 2 embryos |
dizygotic twins |
two ova released in one ovarian cycle and are fertilized by 2 diff sperm |
homeotic genes |
remain capable of activation long after embryologic dev. ends |
indeterminate cleavage |
results in cells that maintain the ability to develop into complete organism |
determinate cleavage |
cells whose future differentiation pathways are det at an early dev stage |
blastulation |
morula develops fluid filled cavity called blastocoel |
deuterostomes |
blastopore=future anus (humans) |
protostomes |
blastophore=future mouth |
ectoderm |
integument; eye lens; nervous sys |
endoderm |
epi lining of digestive and resp tracts; parts of liver; pancreas; thyroid; bladder |
mesoderm |
musculoskeletal sys; circ sys; excretory sys; gonads; ct; digestive and resp organs |
induction |
influence of specific grp of cells on differentiation of another grp of cells; most often mediated by chem substances |
spongy layer |
contains cholorplasts with air spaces around cells |
palisade layer |
densely packed elongated cells spread over lg surface area |
meristems |
self-renewing cell pop that divide and cause plant growth either in height or width |
primary growth |
occurs as a result of cell division within apical meristems |
secondary growth |
growth outward (forms tree rings) |
geotropism |
growth of portions of plants towards or away from gravity (positive) |
symplast |
cytoplasmic compartment made cont by the presence of plasmodesmata in plant cell walls |
tonoplast |
membrane of the central vacuole; stores water and starch |
macronutrients |
biomolecules that make up majority of lipids; carbs; proteins and nucleic acids (c; h; n; o; p; s; ca; k; mg) |
micronutrients |
fe; cl; copper; manganese; zn; b; ni; molybdenum; used as cofactors for enzs |
short-day plants |
flower when exposed to daylight hrs shorter than threshold amt. (really long-night plants) |
long-day plants |
flower with days longer than a certain threshold (really short-night plants) |
plasmids |
sm circ pieces of extrachromosomal DNA containing few genes |
obligate anaerobes |
cannot survive in presence of oxy |
faculatative anaerobes |
can survive with or without oxy |
obligate aerobes |
require oxy to survive |
saprobes |
absorb nutrients from nonliving matter |
plasmogamy |
fusion of cytoplasms of male and female gametangia |
karyogamy |
fusion of male and female nuclei |
radially symmetric |
bodies stretch out in equal dimensions from a central pt |
bilaterally symmetric |
organized along one vertical or horizontal axis and tend to be long or thin |
acoleomate |
having no body cavity between gut and outer wall |
pseudocoleomate |
having a body cavity that is lined by muscles and bvs on the outside surface of cavity |
coleomate |
having a body cavity lined by muscle tissue and bvs both on outer surface and inner surface; surrounding entire digestive tract |
Hardy-Weinberg Theorem |
gene frequencies remain constant if: no emigration/immigration; lg. pop. size; no net mutations; no nat. selection; random mating |
porifera |
sponges |
cnidaria |
jellyfish; corals; hydra |
platyhelminthes |
flatworms; tapeworms |
aschelminthes |
roundworms; rotifers |
annelida |
earthworms; leachces |
mollusca |
clams; oysters; snails |
arthropoda |
insects; crabs; shrimp |
echinodermata |
sea stars; sea urchins; sea cucumbers |
chordata |
sea squirts; lancelets; ALL vertebrates |
coniferous |
cone-bearing |
permafrost |
layer of subsoil that never thaws (found on tundras) |
primary succession |
gradual change of new/lifeless ares of land into thriving ecosys |
secondary succession |
rebuilding of comm. after destruction |
pioneer organisms |
those that first take hold in barren habitat |
nitrification |
conversion of ammonia to nitrate |
competitive exclusion principle |
2 sp. competing for same lim. resources will result in one of the sp. being driven to extinction |
keystone specie |
if removed; widespread havoc and destruction within comm. |
biomass |
numbers of individuals within a comm. |
gross primary productivity |
total chemical energy generated by produces in a given area |
net primary productivity |
total productivity with losses from resp and other energy use by plants subtracted |
carrying capacity |
max size at which pop can stably interact with environ for long period of time |
density-dependent limiting factor |
affect pop growth to a greater degree the lger the pop gets |
density-independent limiting factor |
likely affect a pop growth regardless of size of pop or how well pop adapted to environ |
K-selected sp |
produce few lg well dev young; parental care; slow growth; delayed mat; delayed repro; long gestation |
r-selected sp |
lots of offspring at once; little or no care; fast growth; repro relatively soon after birth; short gestation |
gene translocation |
moves a gene from one region of chromo neare to a more active promoter region |
cline |
graded variation across a diversity of climates and other environmental conditions |
ecotypes |
locally adapted variants of an organism; differing genetically from other local forms |
transplantation experiments |
smaller; founder pop of a sp is moved to a new area where pop has not previously spread in order to see if org take hold |
autopolyploidy |
becoming polyploid by self fert |
allopolyploidy |
becoming polyploid by combining your chromo with another sp |
inclusive fitness |
grps overall fitness increased when some members behave in way that helps offspring survive/repro (kin selection) |
adaptive radiation |
emergence of many sp from a common ancestor after ancestral pop introduced into environ with diverse conditions/open niches |
phylogeny |
relationship of one sp to another |
systematics |
process of classifying organisms based on phylogeny |
cladistics |
grouping of species determined to be related because of distinguishing novel feature |
cell cycle |
Gap 1 (growth & protein synthesis); S (DNA synthesis); Gap 2 (checking DNA for errors; M (mitosis); Cytokinesis (cells moving away from each other) |
mitosis |
Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, Telophase |
meiosis |
production of haploid gametes from a diploid cell. In a human with 46 chromosomes, meiosis produces an egg and a sperm, each with 23 chromosomes. |
crossing-over |
the exchange of segments of DNA between homologous chromosomes |
cell organelles & functions |
cell organelles & functions ribosome: protein synthesis cell membrane: selective permeability, communication smooth ER: lipid production rough ER: protein production Golgi apparatus: modifying, packaging, shipping nucleus: chromatin, transcription nucleolus: manufacture of rRNA mitochondria: aerobic respiration, contains own circular DNA, maternal inheritance peroxisomes: detoxifies peroxides lysosomes: contains enzymes for digestion in endocytosis |
disruptive selection |
favors extreme phenotypes |
stabilizing selection |
favors intermediate phenotypes, thought to be most common type. Classic example: baby birth weight (too big difficulty being born, too little health compromised) |
directional selection |
favors one extreme phenotype, usually when a population moves into a new environment (classic example of Darwin’s finches) |
prokaryote |
bacteria (no nucleus) |
eukaryote |
complex cells, including nucleus and membrane-bound organelles. Plant cells include cellulose cell walls. Fungal cells include chitin cell walls. |
virus |
infectious microbe that is not considered "alive" because it does not metabolize. |
retrovirus |
RNA virus that contains reverse transcriptase, an enzyme that uses the RNA template to make DNA |
antibiotic |
a chemical specifically targeted to inhibit the growth of bacteria |
glucose |
the "typical" carbohydrate, formula C6H12O6. is the building block of starch and cellulose, the prototypical substrate of glycolysis. |
sucrose |
composed of one glucose molecule and one fructose molecule. |
glycogen |
molecule used for stored energy, especially in the liver. |
kinase |
an enzyme that transfers a phosphate from ATP to its substrate |
phosphatase |
an enzyme that transfers a phosphate from its substrate, using water and releasing the P as a phosphate ion. |
Biology Major Field Test Study Set
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